Articles, Conference and Workshop Papers Collection

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Reforming Tanzania’s agricultural extension system: the challenges ahead
(1994) Mattee, A. Z.
The agricultural extension system in Tanzania has faced many problems, of which the key seems to be the poor institutional, administrative and organizational structure of the extension services. Recently, the Tanzanian government, with the assistance of the World Bank launched a major restructuring of the country's extension system including the introduction of the training and visit (T and V) extension. The T and V extension has some inherent weaknesses particularly if implemented without any modification to the Tanzanian context, due to lack of resources and other complimentary services. Recommendations are given to make the T and V system of extension more effective under Tanzanian conditions.
Information and the problems of urban agriculture in Tanzania:intentions and realizations
(University of British Columbia, 1995) Malongo, M.R.S
The role of indigenous technical knowledge in increased food production in Tanzania
(Agris.fao.org, 1995) Lupanga, I. J.; Mvena, Z. S. K.; Forster, P. G.
The study examines ways of linking research, extension and farmers through a two-way exchange of both indigenous technical knowledge (ITK) and scientific knowledge in order to increase food crop production in Tanzania. Specifically the studied sought to establish: the amount of ITK regarding maize, wheat, beans and round potatoes in 15 villages; the extent to which indigenous and conventional scientific knowledge are employed by farmers; the relationship between the use by farmers of ITK and conventional scientific knowledge, and socioeconomic parameters; and the utilization of findings from the study in drawing up policy implications with regard to the planning of the research and extension efforts in Tanzania for improved agricultural production. The study area comprised three major food producing districts in the southern Highlands of Tanzania, namely, Njombe, Mbeya, and Mbinga. A total of 1020 farmers was sampled through semi-structured interviews during two research visits to the areas, first in June 1989 and then between November 1989 and March 1990. The results of the study identify a great deal of ITK within the communities covered and highlight the need for extension agents to utilize this resource.
Child Labour in Urban Agriculture: The Case of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
(Board of Regents of the University of Colorado, 1995) Mlozi, Malongo R.S
Urban agriculture in Dar es Salaam was found to use child labour of both children with parents of higher and lower socioeconomic status (SES). Child labour in urban agriculture was due to four interrelated factors: the failure to adequately enforce gov- ernment regulations; economic austerity; parental expectations for economic contri- bution; and the children's obligations to their families. In some cases there was child labour exploitation. Efforts should be initiated by the government to stop the exploitation of child labour by ratifying the international minimum working age of 14, and by enforcing laws and regulations governing children's rights. Parents of lower SES should be educated to not expect an economic contribution from their chil- dren's labour, and children should also be educated about their rights. Children of lower SES parents should be made aware that their parents' obligations should not be fulfilled at the expense of their future well-being.
Urban Agriculture: Ethnicity, Cattle Raising and Some Environmental Implications in the City of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
(Cambridge University Press, 1997) Mlozi, Malongo R.S
The paper discusses data collection and analysis. It provides a review of literature on both urban agriculture and the environmental degradation that livestock can cause. The paper then uses the model to explain factors that encourage people to raise cattle, and then concludes and offers policy recommendations for averting environmental degradation.
Impacts of urban agriculture in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
(The Environmentalist, 1997) Mlozi, Malongo R.S
Urban agriculturalists keeping mainly cross-bred dairy cattle in four different density areas in the city of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania were investigated as to whether they had information about the damaging effects of their animals on the environment. They responded to questions related to ®ve issues of animal activity that damaged the urban environment. The ®ndings revealed that, on average, all four socioeconomic groups possessed information about the damaging effects which their animals caused. Moreover, the people of the highest and quasi-medium socioeconomic status, who in turn kept the most cattle, were the most aware. Most agriculturalists keeping cattle, therefore, lived with the contradiction that they recognized the damaging effects of the animals. Using a conceptual model, several reasons are given as to why people persist in keeping the cattle. These reasons reside at four levels: government, ministry, city council and the individuals who keep cattle. After examining the reasons for keeping dairy cattle in the city, the author proposes changes at all four levels to reduce the serious urban environmental damage.
Preliminary observations on factors responsible for long persistence and continued outbreaks of plague in Lushoto district, Tanzania
(Elsevier, 1997-06-06) Kilonzo, B.S.; Mvena, Z.S.K.; Machangu, R.S.; Mbise, T.J.
Human plague has been an important public health problem in Tanzania for over a century. Recorded outbreaks of the disease have been reported from various parts of Tanzania, including Iringa, Kagera, Singida, Mbulu, Arusha and Kilimanjaro since 1886. Since 1980 however, only Lushoto, Singida and Karatu districts have experienced outbreaks of the disease. Of these areas, Lushoto has disproportionately high incidences of the disease and this has persisted for nearly 17 years. Efforts to curb the disease through conventional methods, including control of vectors and reservoirs, chemotherapy and chemoprophylaxis, enforcement of sanitation improvement as well as health education, have been applied every year, but plague cases and deaths continue to occur in the area to date. During the period April 1980 to December 1996, a total of 6599 cases with 580 (8.8%) deaths were recorded. Biological factors, such as the presence of suitable rodent reservoirs, efﬁcient ﬂea vectors and plague bacillus, could be partly responsible for the long persistence and reccurence of the disease. Since such factors are also common in other plague foci where the disease has never been persistently recurrent, and where indigenous people are culturally different from those in Lushoto, it is assumed that socio-cultural factors play an important role as determinants of the disease in the latter district. This paper reports preliminary observations on socio-cultural, biological and environmental factors which are thought to be, at least partly, responsible for the long persistence and repeated outbreaks of plague in the district. These include traditional beliefs on the cause and health seeking behaviour for treatment of plague sleeping and food storage habits, large populations of rodents and ﬂeas, and status of the immediate environment. © 1997 Elsevier Science B.V.
The role of informal and semi-formal finance in poverty alleviation in Tanzania: Results of a field study in two regions
(REPOA, 1998) Kashuliza, A. K.; Hella, J. P.; Magayane, F. T.; Mvena, Z. S. K.
Liberalization policies implemented in Tanzania after the mid 1980s have created some impetus to the growth of informal and semi-formal finance and credit operations in the country. This study set out to investigate the modus operandi and performance of some selected informal and semi-formal credit arrangements in two regions of the country (Mbeya and Iringa). Data for the study were collected between January to March, 1996 from a total of two hundred farmers (the majority of whom used informal and semi-formal credit), ten informal lenders, ten input stockists and fourteen semi-formal lenders (including NGOs). Survey information collected by the study indicates that the main sources of informal credit for smallholders are: relatives, neighbours and friends, shop owners and businessmen, and medium and large scale farmers. Such credit is used for both consumption and production activities. Overall, informal lending is still far from being a specialized activity, rather it is a side activity integrated into the enterprise undertakings of various farmers, businessmen and shop owners. A variety of semi-formal lenders are operating in the rural areas mainly providing production credit (often accompanied with some training, supervision, and interest on loans which are generally lower than commercial rates). Some of the semi-lenders target specific groups such as women, youth, farmers of certain crops etc. Most of the semiformal credit channels studied have poor records of loan collection partly because such programmes were being set up without elaborate procedures for education and collection of loans from farmers. Both informal and semi-formal credit access are linked with the attempt to alleviate poverty in several ways including: ability to cultivate larger farms, getting higher crop yields, and better food security status than before (or in comparison to farmers without credit access). Thus more efforts should be made by Government and relevant institutions to promote the development and growth of informal as well as semi-formal credit channels for them to be more effective tools in the efforts to alleviate poverty.
Adoption of rainwater harvesting technologies 'by farmers in Tanzania. with particular reference to the western pare lowlands
(1999) Senkondo, E.M.M.; Lazaro, E.A.; Kajiru, G.J.
Adoption of technology is an important factor in economic development. Successful introduction of technologies in the developing countries requires an understanding of the priorities and concerns of the smallholder farmers at the grassroots. This paper presents experiences of adoption studies in the Western Pare Lowlands, identifying the factors affecting adoption, constraints to adoption and methodological problems in studying adoption of RWH technologies. A survey approach was the main method used to collect the data from a sample of 86 farmers. The data collected were analysed using descriptive statistics and estimation of empirical model to determine the factors affecting adoption of RWH technologies. The empirical model used was logit regression, Important factors affecting the adoption of RWH were identified as number of plots owned by farmers and the sex of the head of household. Constraints in the adoption of RWH technologies were noted including constraints facing those who are already using the RWH technologies. Problems facing the users include difficulties with water distribution. Two important recommendations are made: First because adoption of technologies by farmers takes time, there is a need for collecting a series of data (separated in time) about adoption rather than depending on single season static data. The models used in evaluating adoption should also consider the time element, Secondly, since the main constraints to adoption is lack of technical knowledge, it is recommended that training of extension workers in RWH techniques and including RWH in the district extension package will reduce the problem of availability of technical knowledge to farmers .
The past, present and future of urban agriculture in Tanzania
(Journal of Agricultural Economics and Development, 1999) Mvena, Z. S. K.
Abstract: Urban agriculture in Tanzania has been in existence; for many decades. Presently urban agriculture is both extensive and intensive. Urban farmers come from all walks of life. From highly placed government civil servants and wealthy businessmen to the most disadvantaged slum dwellers. Urban agriculture is constrained by a number of factors including the legal restrictions which dictate the type of crops to be planted and the number of livestock an urban farmer should keep. This paper highlights the potential of urban …
struduraI Resistance of Cashew (Anacardium ocCidentaie) against Powdery Mildew (Oidium WUlCardU)
(1999) Sijaona, M. E. R.; Mansfieid, J. W.
Studies were conducted in the laboratory at RYe College, University of London, to investigate some aspects of pre-infection structurai resistance on cashew leaf and flower sUlfaces. Using the Scanning, Transmission Electron Microscppes and the light microscope, cashew leaf suTjaces were found to be covered by a layer ofepicuticular wax, whichappeared to develop with age. Flower suTjaces werefound to be covered by hairs of varying shape and length which appeared to help trap tiny mildew spores. Ihis appears to explain why flower organs are extremely susceptible to mildew infection. Using artificial inoculation, mildew in:ie"ction was possible on young leaves, but infection did not occur on older leaves. Epicuticular waX layer observed on. cashew leaf suTjace, as a pre-infection resistance factor, appeared to be responsible for inhibition of germination and development of O. anacardii on older leaves.
The past, present and future of Urban Agriculture in Tanzania
(1999-06) Mvena, Z. S. K
Urban agriculture in Tanzania has been in existence for many decades. Presently urban agriculture is both extensive and intensive. Urban farmers come from all walks of life. From highly placed government civil servants and wealthy businessmen to the most disadvantaged slum dwellers. Urban agriculture is constrained by a number of factors including the legal restrictions which dictate the type of crops to be planted and the number of livestock an urban farmer should keep. This paper highlights the potential of urban agriculture, its constraints and possible solutions.
The role of women’s income generating activities in household food security in the urban poor : the case of Temeke district in Dar es salaam region
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2000) Nkurlu, Ruth Laekya
The study reported here describes the contribution of women’s income generating activities in household food security with respect to nutritional status of children in the urban poor. The study was conducted in Temeke District, Dar es Salaam Region, Tanzania. The general objective was to investigate the contribution of women’s income generating activities in household food security. Specifically the study identified and characterized income generating activities undertaken by women, examined the level of income generated through women’s income generating activities, assessed the contribution of women and men to household expenditure on food and other items and assessed the nutritional status of children below five years of age in participating households. A cross sectional single visit survey was conducted on a randomly selected sample of 80 households. A total of 80 women were interviewed using a pre-tested structured questionnaire. Nutritional status of children below five years of age was assessed by anthropometric methods. Weight- for-age was used as an indicator of nutritional status. Data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) Programme. The findings show that, income generating activities carried out by women are small-scale activities that provide services. Among those identified in this study include food vending “mama ntilie”, vegetable cultivation, sale of charcoal and local brew. Others included sewing, handicraft, hair plaiting, vegetable and fruit stalls, sale of refreshments (soft drinks, juices and beer) and video show. These activities were hampered by poor infrastructure, low use of capital, lack of business education and lack of group ii mobilization. Women earned an average of 34 237.98 Tshs per month. Details on the expenditure pattern revealed that food had a higher priority for women than men. Women spent 37 percent and 33 percent of their earnings on food and non-food items respectively compared to 30 percent and 38.6 percent of men’s earnings on food and non-food items respectively. Assessment of nutritional status of children indicated that 52.5 percent of children had normal weight for age while 47.6 percent were underweight compared to the national average of 28 percent. Assessment of factors associated with nutritional status of the children revealed that women’s time in IGAs was negatively related to the children’s weight-for-age, an indicator for nutritional status but the association was not significant at 5% level. Furthermore, the results indicate that women’s income spent on food was significant and negatively related to nutritional status of children (P = 0.05) mainly due to the fact that these households solely depended on income earned from income generating activities for a living. As a result they used a small proportion of their income as an economic measure to ensure supplies throughout the year. Other factors that also contributed to poor nutritional status of children in the sampled households include lack of nutritional knowledge on the part of women and poor environmental sanitation in the area. The study recommends the following: (1) Training of women in marketing and managerial skills and providing them necessary resources to increase their productivity. (2) Reduction of women’s workload in different activities related to food security so as to allow them more time in IGAs. iii (3) Improve nutritional knowledge of women in order to make them understand the best use of their income.
Rural poultry in Tanzania; the untapped potential: a short review
(Proceedings of the 1 st University Wide Scientific Conference, 5t h – 7th April, 2000: Volume 4., 2000-04) Minga, U.M; Yongolo, M.G.S; Lawrence, P; Mwalusanya, N.A; Katule, A; Gwakisa, P.S; Mlozi, M.R.S; Olsen, J.E
This is a short review of the studies made on the scavenging local chicken (SLC) in Tanzania. According to recent estimates, there are approximately 28 million poultry in Tanzania and of these, 27 million are chickens, mainly scavenging local chickens (93.3%) and relatively few commercial broilers and layers (6.7%). The other poultry are Ducks and geese (743,500), turkeys (63,400) and Guinea fowl (38,000). Poultry are kept by about 2.5 million households out of 3.7 million agricultural households, compared to 1.0 million households which keep cattle. This large potential of the rural chicken is yet to be fully tapped. The main constraints to realising the potential are poor husbandry, low genetic potential and disease and, of the diseases, Newcastle disease has been singled out to be the most important. Due to those factors, the productivity indices are low and the off take rate is also low. Thus the average egg production per hen per year is about 70 whereas the average adult weight of hens is 1.54kg and for cocks is 1.85kg. However recent studies have revealed that the scavenging local chickens (SLC) differ phenotypically and that so far five ecotypes have been identified in Tanzania, namely Kuchi (originating from Mwanza), Singamagazi (Tabora), Mbeya (Mbeya), Morogoro medium (Morogoro), Ching’wekwe or Morogoro Short (Morogoro). The ecotypes differ in their productivity indeces. The average adult body weights of cocks and hens of the ecotypes are 2.71kg and 1.83; 2.92 kg and 2.02 kg; 1.62 kg and 1.40 kg, 1.85 and 1.11 kg, 2.10 kg and 1.44 kg respectively. It is suggested that the economic and nutritional potential of the SLC can be fully realised if husbandry is improved, selective breeding is practised and diseases control through vaccination of especially Newcastle disease is regularly conducted. It is estimated that the chicken industry is worth 40.5 billion shillings or about US dollars 50.6 million and that with the ideal off-take rate, the industry can generate over 155.1 billion shillings or US dollars 193.9 million through the sale of about 103.4 million surplus growers alone. The way forward is proposed.
Factors affecting students academic achievement in secondary schools in Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2000-11) Mlozi, M. R. S.
This study was conducted in the ten secondary schools in three regions namely Dar es Salaam, Morogoro and Tanga. Of the ten surveyed schools, five of them were in Dar Es Salaam region and these included Azania, Jangwani, Kinondoni Moslem, Shaaban Roberts and Jitegemee-JKT. Three secondary schools surveyed in Morogoro region included Kilakala, Morogoro and Lutheran Junior Seminary. The other two schools surveyed in Tanga region where Kifungilo and St. Mary's Mazinde Juu. Of the ten schools, five of them (Kinondoni Moslem, Lutheran Junior Seminary, Jitegemee-JKT, Morogoro secondary, Shaaban Robert) were co-education. Four of the surveyed schools (Kilakala, Kifungilo, Jangwani and St. Mary’s Mazinde Juu) were girls only, while one (Azania) was boy's only secondary school. Based on school ownership, four schools were government owned and ran (Azania, Kilakala, Jangwani, Morogoro Secondary) while Kinondoni secondary school was owned and ran by the Moslem community in Dar es Salaam. Two schools (Kifungilo, St. Mary’s Mazinde Juu) were owned and ran by Roman Catholic, and one (Lutheran Junior Seminary) were owned and run by CC of Tanzania. Jitegemee and Shaaban Robert secondary school were owned and ran by Jeshi la Kujenga Taifa-SUMA, and the Indian community of Dar es Salaam, respectively. Based on the school type: Azania, Jangwani and Morogoro secondary schools had boarders and day going students, while Kilakala, Kifungilo, Lutheran Junior Seminary and St. Mary’s Mazinde Juu were boarding schools. Day school in the survey included Kinondoni Moslem, Jitegemee-JKT and Shaaban Robert secondary schools. The study included respondents in the school with the most students (over 500), medium student (about 200) and the least (less than 100) students. Of the 630 interviewees, 217 (34.4%), 167 (26.6%), 91 (14.4%), 78 (12.4%), and 77 (12.2%) came from the government, religious-Christian, Jitegemee-SUMA-J.K.T, religious-Moslem, and individual secondary schools, respectively. Of the ten surveyed secondary schools, eight of them having 554 (88%) respondents were located in urban areas. This bias was purposive because most of the secondary schools in the country are located in urban areas. Also, of the 630 surveyed students, 422 (67%) came from five schools in the city of Dar es Salaam because city has many schools in the country. Of the 630 respondents, 353 (56.0%) were girls and 273 (43.3%) males (Table 2). The average age of interviewees was 17.7 year old. Most of the surveyed students, 599 (95.1%) were sampled from Forms III and IV because these has stayed long enough in the schools and were hypothesized to have more knowledge about the phenomena being studied. Selection of schools was purposive and not all government schools were sampled for the study. Currently, about 90 per cent of all students finish their ordinary and advanced secondary school education from the government schools. About half of the sampled students, 330 (52.4%) were in co-education, 164 (26.0%), and 136 (21.6%) were in girls and boys only secondary schools, respectively. Most respondents, 568 (92%), 583 (94%), 576 (93%) agreed that biology, chemistry and physics laboratories were available in their schools. Over half of female and male interviewees, 411 409 (67%), (66%), 394 (65%), and 356 (63%) agreed that teachers used laboratories for practical sessions, classroom had enough chairs and desks, and teachers used teaching materials, respectively. Of the 630 interviewees, most, 528 (84%) agreed that they used only English during note taking in the classrooms. Respondents based on gender reported a similar observation: 306 (86%) and 222 (81%) female and male respondents respectively. Over half of the respondents, 415 (68%) and 380 (62%) agreed that they used English in answering and asking questions in the classrooms, respectively. Similarly, 385 (63%) of the interviewees agreed that they used both English and Kiswahili in group discussions. Of the 630 interviewees, 554 (89.1%), 448 (73.9%) agreed that their school had libraries and library attendants, respectively. Over half of the respondents, 384 (63%), 317 (51.8%), and 299 (50.2%) agreed that they borrowed books from their libraries, that their libraries had enough chairs and tables, their teachers asked students to go to the libraries and borrow books, respectively. Less than half of the respondents, 292 (47.9%), 282 (46.5%), 239 (40.7%) agreed that the school libraries had enough books, that libraries were within their vicinity, and that they frequently used the libraries. But, when students were asked to mention the clubs that they were involved in, only a few of them were able to name the specific clubs. Of the 630 respondents, 201 (31.9%) agreed that they were involved in the debate clubs in their schools. Most interviewees in the ten schools, 530 (84.1%) agreed that English was only used during note taking in the classrooms. And over half of them, 431 (68,4%), 418 (66.3%), 387 (61.4%), and 383 (61.1%) agreed that they preferred teachers to use English when teaching, used English when answering questions, used both English and Kiswahili in group discussions, and used English when asking questions, respectively. Furthermore, most interviewees in the girls secondary schools, 193 (90%) agreed to using English during note-taking than boys 72 (84%), followed by co-education 265 (80%), although the difference was not significant. Over half of the interviewees, 431 (68%), 418 (66%), and 383 (60%), based on their school systems agreed that they like to use English, they used English in answering questions, and used English in asking questions, respectively. However, less than half of the respondents, 252 (40%) agreed that their teachers used English when teaching--this low response may be contributing to poor English among Tanzanian secondary school graduates. Over half of the interviewees, 385 (61%) and 317 (50%) agreed that they borrowed books from their libraries and that schools classrooms had enough chairs and tables. However, of the 630 interviewees, less than half, 299 (48%), 292 (46%), and 284 (45%) reported that their teachers asked students to go to the libraries, that their libraries had enough books, and there was a nearby library, respectively. Further examination of these show that most respondents in the girls only schools, 154 (72%) followed by those in co-education, 199 (60%) borrowed books from the school libraries. However, few, 32 (37%) of the respondents in the boys only schools borrowed books from the school libraries. Over half of interviewees, 413 (66%), 411 (65%), and 395 (63%) agreed that their schools had enough chairs and desks, enough teachers, used laboratories for practical sessions, respectively. Summarily, data show that on average less than half 113 (42.2%) of the interviewees in the government-owned and ran schools agreed to most aspects pertaining to classroom-, teaching materials- and laboratories-related variables. This implied that most of the government-run secondary schools did not have an adequate supply of these items. Of the 40 teachers, 25 (62.5%), 8 (20%), 6 (15%) and 1 (2.5%) were surveyed from the government, Christian, individual, and JKT secondary schools, respectively. Of the 25 teachers in the government secondary school, 15 (60%) had completed Form VI, which implied that they had no formal teaching skills. Most interviewees, 35 (87.5%) were trained teachers, and about half, 20 (50%) indicated that they had completed teacher training between 1986 and 1992. However, less than half, 18 (45%) had started teaching between 1986 and 1992, i.e. had an experience of between 13 and seven years of teaching. Also, the study shows that 9 (30%), 9 (22.5%), and 7 (17.5%) of the respondents taught biology and chemistry, English, mathematics and physics subjects, respectively. Of the 40 teachers, 27 (67.6%) of them agreed that they had not attended in-service courses and of these, the majority, 19 (76%) were from the government secondary schools. Similarly, 34 (85%), 28 (70%), 27 (67.5%) teachers sampled from the categories of school ownership type agreed that they had not attended refresher courses, seminars, and workshops, respectively. Less than half, 18 (45%) of the respondents agreed that their class sizes were between 30 to 40 students. And, most teachers, 31 (77.5%) reported that teaching materials in their schools were enough. However, most teachers in the government secondary schools, 22 (88%), about half, 3 (50%) in the individual schools, and 2 (25%) in the Christian/religious schools reported that their schools had enough teaching materials. Secondary school teachers were asked to assess their English competence levels. Of the 40 teachers, 15 (37.5%), 9 (22.5%), and 1 (2.5%) agreed that their English competence levels were good, very good, and excellent, respectively. This data implied that some secondary school teachers were not confident with their English competence, an aspect that may affect the performance of secondary school students. Less than half of the 40 teachers, 19 (47.5%) and 17 (42.5%) agreed that their schools had laboratories for physics, chemistry, biology and domestic science subjects, respectively. However, most teachers did not agree with the statement that their laboratories were well equipped as only six (15%) said so. Also, about half of the teachers, 21 (52.5%) agreed that there were librarians, but less than half, 19 (47.5%) disagreed that the school libraries had enough chairs and desks. Few interviewees, 13 (32.5%) agreed that they always used the library. This data implied that if teachers do not frequently use the library it could be difficult to advise students to do so--as only 18 (45%) assigned students to use the library. However, as school observations revealed this was due to the fact that most libraries in the schools had few books in terms of relevance, quality and quantity. For instance, few of the surveyed teachers, 7 (17.5%) agreed that libraries had enough book copies for the students. Of the 40 respondents, less than half 19 (47.5%) said that the school libraries had outdated books that needed updating. Few teachers agreed to be members to about six subject clubs in the schools. This small number of teacher involvement in school subject clubs manifests itself in the small numbers of students in the clubs as explained elsewhere. Consequently, this might have an effect on the performance of students in their respective subjects. Of the surveyed seven school administrators, six indicated that they were trained teachers, and of all, three, two for each were trained at the University of Dar Es salaam, at Kleruu and Dar TTC, and abroad (USA, U.K.), respectively. Years in which they attended training were between 1969 to 1991. Four, two and one of the school administrators had Bachelor of Arts in Education, Bachelor of Science in Education, and a diploma in Education, respectively. The length of years worked in the schools varied. Three, two, one for each had worked for three, one, six and seven years, respectively. Of the seven respondents, three, one for each, agreed that the number one hindering factor was lack of teaching materials, textbooks, the double sessions, and interruption brought about by unplanned school closure before time, respectively. Two, one for each administrator mentioned that hindering factors included as lack of teaching materials, lack of study areas for students, lack of librarians, lack of emphasis of games and sports, respectively. Of the seven interviewees, two, and one for each agreed that the number one hindering factor was that teachers did not mark the students' home work in time, lack of effective teaching, and that teachers did not use teaching materials, and had heavy teaching loads, respectively. Of the six, four, one for each commented that the final examinations performance of their students were good, very good, and good if students were availed the facilities for practical. Also, seven interviewees gave their comments on their students' English language competence, and two, one for each said that they were average, very good, not competent, lack practice out of the classrooms, respectively.
Legal and policy aspects of urban agriculture in Tanzania
(UA-Magazine, 2003) Malongo, R. S. M.
Marketing of free range local chickens in Dar Es Salaam City: Some implications for Rural Extension Services in Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2003) Mlozi, M. R.S.; Mtambo, M. M.; Olsen, J. E.
This study was conducted from 29th April, 2003 to 6th May, 2003 with the main aim of of the study was to investigate the marketing strategies and the income that village buyers and the urban middle-persons earned from the free-range local chicken (FRLCs), i.e. the latter bought FRLCs in the rural villages and the former sold them in the city of Dar es Salaam. The study interviewed 160 respondents involved in the marketing of FRLC, and of these, 88 were village buyers and 72 were middle-persons. The village buyers went out in the rural areas, bought FRLCs and transported them to Dar es Salaam city and sold chicken to the middle-persons who in turn sold them to urban consumers. To cover the 13 markets scattered in the three Districts (Kinondoni, Ilala, Temeke) in the region of Dar es Salaam, three trained enumerators were temporarily employed to interview village buyers and urban middle-persons using a pre-tested and validated questionnaires. The study found that most the people involved in the FRLCs business were younger (30 to 45 years of age) and over 90 percent were males. Tuesdays and Thursdays were the days when most of the FRLCs were brought in from the up-country destinations. Most of the FRLCs sold in 13 markets in the city of Dar es Salaam originated from Dodoma and Singida regions—further proving earlier proof that these two regions produced the most FRLCs sold in the city. Most of the FRLCs were transported on trains and that the tenga was the most common container used for transporting chicken to the markets. Cocks were priced highly than hens, and that August, September and October FRLCs fetched high prices. Respondents showed that most of the FRLCs showed disease symptoms in September. The urban middle-persons earned more profits from selling FRLCs than did the village buyers. There are a number of implications for rural extension services that emanate from this study that could improve the husbandry of FRLCs, hence, contributing to household income and poverty alleviation in rural areas. Furthermore, the findings of this study have demonstrated the enormous potential of FRLCs a resource that few have tapped leaving out the smallholder to get a pittance. Therefore, this study makes recommendations at six levels of operation: the extension officers, the researchers, the village buyers and urban middle-persons, the NGOs and the Government.
Improving urban poors’ access to land for urban agriculture in Kinondoni Municipality, Tanzania
(Municipal Development Programme for Eastern and Southern Africa (MDP-ESA), 2004-07) Mlozi, M. R.S.; Komba, A.; Geho, M.; Kimei, V.
This study was carried out in Kinondoni Municipal Council’s six wards of which three were urban: Kawe, Mwnanyamala and Tandale, and other three were peri-urban: Bunju, Goba, and Kibamba. Objectives of the study and methodology The general objective of this study was to contribute to a better understanding of how the periurban resource-poor accessed land for (peri)-urban agriculture. It also sought to identify and recommend public policy interventions needed to improve access to land for (peri) urban agriculture by the urban resource poor. The specific objectives were: 1. To document and analyze formal and informal practices, strategies and means used by socially differentiated women and men accessed land for PUA; 2. To identify and analyze issues of public policy and legislation that constrained or enhanced the practice of (peri)-urban agriculture, particularly by the urban resource-poor; 3. To document and analyze strategies and procedures used to prevent, manage, and resolve conflicts and foster collaboration over access to land for PUA by the urban resource-poor; 4. To integrate/link the research on objectives 1, 2, 3, with: a. Specific public policy interventions to improve access by the urban poor to land for PUA in Kinondoni municipality; b. Other factors that may affect access to land for PUA by the resource-poor; 5. To contribute to filling gaps on gender aspects of and to the state of art and knowledge on access to land for PUA; 6. To self-monitor and document in-progress and final technical reports of those aspects or impacts (positive or negative, planned or not) which can be attributed, partially or in whole to this project in Kinondoni municipality. The research protocol involved ten steps: a methodological workshop, a scooping workshop, designing and refining research instruments, pilot testing of instruments, main field data collection, focus group discussions, feedback workshop, draft report and revised report writing. The main filed data collection involved a sample of 801 respondents who were interviewed, and three types of questionnaires were used for this study. The first set of questionnaire was designed for the urban resource-poor who practiced urban agriculture (hereafter referred to as UA). The second set of questionnaire was used for the urban poor who did not practice urban agriculture (hereafter referred to as non-UA). The third set of questionnaire was used to elicit information from the peri-urban poor who practiced agriculture in the peri-urban areas (hereafter referred to as RA). In all cases, both quantitative and qualitative information was gathered from the respondents in their households. Key findings On the issue of methods of acquiring land in KMC, a total of 417 respondents provided responses. Of these, 315 were from peri-urban areas and their responses indicated that methods of acquiring land in peri-urban areas included: purchasing (26.3%), inheriting (21.9%), bush clearing (18.4%), being granted land by the village government (13.0%), being given land by a relative (10.8), by a friend (10.5%) and being allocated land by the Ministry of Lands and Human Settlement Development (MLHSD) or Kinondoni Municipal Council (KMC) (0.6%) and others. In essence, the methods that the resource-poor farmers used to access land for agriculture can be group into three. First, was the informal, which included inheriting, bush clearing, given by relatives, given by friends and these accounted for 61.6 percent of the respondents. Second, was purchasing or buying, which accounted for 26.3 percent of respondents, while the third the formal, which included allocation of land by the village governments, and MLHSD or KMC, which accounted for only 0.6 percent. Over two thirds of the respondents, therefore, used informal methods of accessing land for agriculture highlighting the importance of social capital. This study found that respondents’ income levels influenced the various methods that they used to access land for agriculture. Out of the 801 respondents, 311 (38.6%) gave their responses, of which 247 (79.4%), 27 (8.7%), 21 (6.8%), and 16 (5.1%) indicated that their monthly income from the informal sector was less that Tshs. 30,000 (US$ 28.8), more than Tshs. 50,000 (US$ 48), between Tshs. 30,000 to 40,000 (US$ 28.8 to 38.5), and between Tshs. 40,001 to 50,000 (US$ 38.5 to 48.1), respectively. Furthermore, of the 480 RA resource-poor farmers, 284 (59.2%) indicated that they would charge an acre of land to fellow villagers at a mean price of Tshs. 1,012,000, a maximum of Tshs. 20,000,000 (US$ 19,231), a minimum of 50,000 (US$ 48) with a standard deviation of Tshs. 1,652,000 (US$ 1,589). None of the resource-poor farmer would afford this kind of a price for an acre of land given their low monthly income. Another way of explaining how the three types of the respondents (UA, non-UA, RA) accessed land for agriculture was to examine data based on the nine respondents’ characteristics across the three methods they used to access land for agriculture. Cross-tabulated data showed that the three types of respondents used informal methods for accessing land for agriculture in varying proportions. The highest were the UA and RA respondents who on average, over two thirds (69%) and (61%) indicated that they used informal methods for accessing land for agriculture, respectively, compared to 47 percent for the non-UA. Of the 137 UA who gave their responses on gender, 78 (57%) gave their opinions about the methods they used to access land for agriculture. And of these, 24 (31%) and 13 (17%) females and males indicated that they accessed land for agriculture through inheritance, respectively. All the informal methods of accessing land accounted for about 72 percent, indicating that they were superior over the formal methods. One thing to note was that most of the women accessed land for agriculture through inheritance than did males. This is probably due to matrilineal systems of passing over property practiced by the ethnic groups in the eastern zone. Based on non-UA respondents’ gender, the informal methods that both females and males commonly used to access land for agriculture accounted for about 66 percent, indicating that they were superior over the formal methods. Unlike the UA and non-UA respondents, 48 (15%) and 53 (11%) of males and females of the RA respondents indicated that they accessed land for agriculture by buying, respectively. The study also found that in peri-urban areas, females and males equally indicated that they accessed land for agriculture through inheritance 35 (11%) for females and 34 (10.8%) for males. This data showed that there was gender equity in terms how land for agriculture was given to siblings in peri-urban areas of KMC. Based on RA respondents’ gender, the informal methods for accessing land for agriculture, which included inheritance, bush clearing, given by friends, given by relatives accounted for about 53 percent than the formal methods. Out of a total of 801 respondents, 790 (98.6%) gave their opinions about their awareness to land legislation for regulating access to land for agriculture in KMC. An analysis of the results showed that an overwhelming 774 (97.6%) of the respondents were not aware of any land legislation issued by the government or KMC for regulating access to land for agriculture in KMC. The study also found that land conflicts in KMC peri-urban study wards were heightened partly by five main reasons: land scarcity setting in, proximity to the city of Dar es Salaam, the homogeneity of the ethnic tribes, the young Zaramo claims to the land, the socio-economic status of the resource-poor farmers. In the six study wards, it was found that there were five levels of conflicts and the lowest level of a land conflict was when a resource-poor farmer’s family member had a conflict with another family member on a land issue. In peri-urban wards the study found that there were two methods of settling land conflicts. These included the formal or official, and the informal or traditional methods. In KMC peri-urban areas, the formal method of settling land conflicts consisted of five levels: the ten-cell leader, village government leaders, ward executive officer, the primary court, and district court, and the commonly used ones were the first three. There are six policy recommendations emanating from this study. 1.. KMC in collaboration with other government departments, NGOs and community based organizations should initiate educational programmes to the resource-poor farmers on land legislations and policy issues, land conflicts and how to resolve them, surveying, titling and registration of their lands, how to get loans using title deed as collaterals, and refraining from selling land and initiating sustainable income sources. 2. In (peri)-urban areas, KMC in collaboration with other institutions (i.e. Banks, NGOs, government departments) should initiate programmes that could give loans to the resource-poor farmers. 3. In urban areas, KMC in collaboration with MLHSD should survey and temporarily allocate the open spaces, vedges, and valleys to the resource-poor farmers so that they can use the land for agriculture. 4. In peri-urban areas, KMC/MLHSD in collaboration with the village governments should enact bylaws limiting the size of land that a resource-poor farmer could sell out to people coming from outside the village. 5. In urban areas, using the existing leadership ladder, KMC in collaboration with the Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security should initiate ‘urban agriculture farmers producer groups’. 6. In (peri)-urban areas, KMC in collaboration with MLHSD, and the village governments, should enact bylaws that would compel village governments to allocate half of their agricultural land to women and ensure that such land is properly surveyed, titled and registered in the names of women.
Improving urban poors’ access to land for urban agriculture in Kinondoni Municipality, Tanzania
(Municipal Development Programme for Eastern and Southern Africa (MDP-ESA, 2004-07) Mlozi, M. R.S.; Komba, A.; Geho, M.; Kimei, V.
This study was carried out in Kinondoni Municipal Council’s six wards of which three were urban: Kawe, Mwnanyamala and Tandale, and other three were peri-urban: Bunju, Goba, and Kibamba. Objectives of the study and methodology The general objective of this study was to contribute to a better understanding of how the periurban resource-poor accessed land for (peri)-urban agriculture. It also sought to identify and recommend public policy interventions needed to improve access to land for (peri) urban agriculture by the urban resource poor. The specific objectives were: 1. To document and analyze formal and informal practices, strategies and means used by socially differentiated women and men accessed land for PUA; 2. To identify and analyze issues of public policy and legislation that constrained or enhanced the practice of (peri)-urban agriculture, particularly by the urban resource-poor; 3. To document and analyze strategies and procedures used to prevent, manage, and resolve conflicts and foster collaboration over access to land for PUA by the urban resource-poor; 4. To integrate/link the research on objectives 1, 2, 3, with: a. Specific public policy interventions to improve access by the urban poor to land for PUA in Kinondoni municipality; b. Other factors that may affect access to land for PUA by the resource-poor; 5. To contribute to filling gaps on gender aspects of and to the state of art and knowledge on access to land for PUA; 6. To self-monitor and document in-progress and final technical reports of those aspects or impacts (positive or negative, planned or not) which can be attributed, partially or in whole to this project in Kinondoni municipality. The research protocol involved ten steps: a methodological workshop, a scooping workshop, designing and refining research instruments, pilot testing of instruments, main field data collection, focus group discussions, feedback workshop, draft report and revised report writing. The main filed data collection involved a sample of 801 respondents who were interviewed, and three types of questionnaires were used for this study. The first set of questionnaire was designed for the urban resource-poor who practiced urban agriculture (hereafter referred to as UA). The second set of questionnaire was used for the urban poor who did not practice urban agriculture (hereafter referred to as non-UA). The third set of questionnaire was used to elicit information from the peri-urban poor who practiced agriculture in the peri-urban areas (hereafter referred to as RA). In all cases, both quantitative and qualitative information was gathered from the respondents in their households. Key findings On the issue of methods of acquiring land in KMC, a total of 417 respondents provided responses. Of these, 315 were from peri-urban areas and their responses indicated that methods of acquiring land in peri-urban areas included: purchasing (26.3%), inheriting (21.9%), bush clearing (18.4%), being granted land by the village government (13.0%), being given land by a relative (10.8), by a friend (10.5%) and being allocated land by the Ministry of Lands and Human Settlement Development (MLHSD) or Kinondoni Municipal Council (KMC) (0.6%) and others. In essence, the methods that the resource-poor farmers used to access land for agriculture can be group into three. First, was the informal, which included inheriting, bush clearing, given by relatives, given by friends and these accounted for 61.6 percent of the respondents. Second, was purchasing or buying, which accounted for 26.3 percent of respondents, while the third the formal, which included allocation of land by the village governments, and MLHSD or KMC, which accounted for only 0.6 percent. Over two thirds of the respondents, therefore, used informal methods of accessing land for agriculture highlighting the importance of social capital. This study found that respondents’ income levels influenced the various methods that they used to access land for agriculture. Out of the 801 respondents, 311 (38.6%) gave their responses, of which 247 (79.4%), 27 (8.7%), 21 (6.8%), and 16 (5.1%) indicated that their monthly income from the informal sector was less that Tshs. 30,000 (US$ 28.8), more than Tshs. 50,000 (US$ 48), between Tshs. 30,000 to 40,000 (US$ 28.8 to 38.5), and between Tshs. 40,001 to 50,000 (US$ 38.5 to 48.1), respectively. Furthermore, of the 480 RA resource-poor farmers, 284 (59.2%) indicated that they would charge an acre of land to fellow villagers at a mean price of Tshs. 1,012,000, a maximum of Tshs. 20,000,000 (US$ 19,231), a minimum of 50,000 (US$ 48) with a standard deviation of Tshs. 1,652,000 (US$ 1,589). None of the resource-poor farmer would afford this kind of a price for an acre of land given their low monthly income. Another way of explaining how the three types of the respondents (UA, non-UA, RA) accessed land for agriculture was to examine data based on the nine respondents’ characteristics across the three methods they used to access land for agriculture. Cross-tabulated data showed that the three types of respondents used informal methods for accessing land for agriculture in varying proportions. The highest were the UA and RA respondents who on average, over two thirds (69%) and (61%) indicated that they used informal methods for accessing land for agriculture, respectively, compared to 47 percent for the non-UA. Of the 137 UA who gave their responses on gender, 78 (57%) gave their opinions about the methods they used to access land for agriculture. And of these, 24 (31%) and 13 (17%) females and males indicated that they accessed land for agriculture through inheritance, respectively. All the informal methods of accessing land accounted for about 72 percent, indicating that they were superior over the formal methods. One thing to note was that most of the women accessed land for agriculture through inheritance than did males. This is probably due to matrilineal systems of passing over property practiced by the ethnic groups in the eastern zone. Based on non-UA respondents’ gender, the informal methods that both females and males commonly used to access land for agriculture accounted for about 66 percent, indicating that they were superior over the formal methods. Unlike the UA and non-UA respondents, 48 (15%) and 53 (11%) of males and females of the RA respondents indicated that they accessed land for agriculture by buying, respectively. The study also found that in peri-urban areas, females and males equally indicated that they accessed land for agriculture through inheritance 35 (11%) for females and 34 (10.8%) for males. This data showed that there was gender equity in terms how land for agriculture was given to siblings in peri-urban areas of KMC. Based on RA respondents’ gender, the informal methods for accessing land for agriculture, which included inheritance, bush clearing, given by friends, given by relatives accounted for about 53 percent than the formal methods. Out of a total of 801 respondents, 790 (98.6%) gave their opinions about their awareness to land legislation for regulating access to land for agriculture in KMC. An analysis of the results showed that an overwhelming 774 (97.6%) of the respondents were not aware of any land legislation issued by the government or KMC for regulating access to land for agriculture in KMC.
Agricultural extension through participatory approaches: Lessons from UMADEP, Morogoro, Tanzania
(Institute of Continuing Education, 2005-01) Rutatora, D. F.; Mattee, A. Z,; Mgumia, A. H.
The Uluguru Agricultural Development Project (UMADEP) uses a combination of Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA), Participatory Technology Development (PTD), Farmer Groups and Farmer to Farmer extension approaches. Experience in the use of these approaches show that farmers in collaboration with extension workers have developed activities which address location specific problems, generated appropriate technological innovations that are sustainable and take into account the socio-cultural and economic milieu of the communities. In addition, this has led to the formation of farmers ' groups which facilitate learning, decisionmaking, and adoption of agreed innovations. UMADEP's experience shows that use of participatory approaches can lead to making extension efforts more responsive to needs offarming communities, cost effective and sustainable.

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