Department of Agricultural Extension and Community Development

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Comparative effectiveness of group extension methods in village farming in till coastal zone of Tanzania
(University of Dar es salaam, 1979-07-01) Kauzeni, Athanas S.
This dissertation compares the effectiveness of three group—based agricultural extension methodsi (i) demonstra—tions together with formal scheduled group discussion meetings, (ii) formal scheduled group discussion meetings alone and (iii) informal unscheduled or general meetings or contacts that were applied in 24 villages of the coastal zone in Bagamoyo, Handeni, Korogwe, and I.Iorogoro Districts, Tanzania. economic, political, administrative, educational, and environmental factors that directly or indirectly affect the effectiveness of agricultural extension methods and the extension service in general. The aim of the study is: first, to identify the best or most effective group-based agricultural extension methods Secondly, to identify constraints to agricultural extension < methods and the extension service in general that render agricultural extension workers ineffective and consequently inhibit increased agricultural production. Third, the study aims at making recommendations that will help agricultural extension workers in villages to increase their communication effectiveness which will hopefully lead to increased agricultural production. meetings, (ii) formal scheduled group discussion meetings alone and (iii) informal unscheduled or general meetings or which conform to tire country’s policy for villagization as . ■’ * related to the prevailing economic and social conditions^. It examines social Historically the agricultural extension service has been understaffed, and most seriously under-educated (in basic education), and under-trained (in extension and agriculture ) • Inadequate training, particularly in the extension approach or methods, is alleged to be one of the main causes for ineffectiveness of agricultural extension workers and the extension service in general. The training given lacks understanding and proper emphasis, therefore does not produce extension workers able to communicate effectively Consequently with farmers. extension workers have apparently had a minor impact in inducing changes in farming. Five operational dependent variables used in measuring the effectiveness of the three group-based agricultural extension methods are: (i) Knowledge of recommended farming practices, (ii) Adoption rate of recommended farming Results of the study show that differences exist in effectiveness of the three group-based agricultural extension methods as stated in the hypotheses tested. Some of these differences are statistically significant, others are not. Of the three group-based agricultural extension methods studied, demonstrations together with formal scheduled group discussion meetings proved to be the most practices, (iii) Development increase of the village, (iv) Income per ha and (v) Income per man-day. effective. Formal scheduled group discussion meetings vzere second in effectiveness, and informal unscheduled general meetings or contacts v/ere last in effectiveness. The analytical methods used in arriving at these results include simple and multiple regression and analysis of variance. There are also differences between Districts in relation to the effectiveness of extension methods in respeet of the five operational variables. Some of these differences v/ere statistically significant, other were not. Districts differ in levels of performance in respect to nature of individual) but none of these differences between Districts are statistically significant. on average, statistically significant differences between communal and individual types of farming systems in respeet of the tv/o income variables under all three types of group-based extension methods. Several obstacles affect agricultural information communication in the coastal zone villages: These include poor basic education and professional training of agricultural extension workers, high illiteracy percentage level among farmers, inadequate structural organization of the extension service, poor supervision of village level extension workers, and economic and social disparity between villagers and extension workers. In order to improve effectiveness of the agricultural extension approach and the extension service as a whole, it is recommended that evaluation of the agricultural extension service, particularly extension methods, be made more often. Demonstrations and meetings should be the key educational tool of the extension workers in villages. The entire agricultural training programmes should bo reviewed to insure that relevant subjects have their duo emphasis in the syllabi. The number of trainees should be increased and only form IV and above with high passes in relevant subjects should be recruited in so far as adequate numbers are available. Village-level agricultural extension workers should be employees of villages. Research recommendations for villages should be accompanied by their economic aspects to make them complete and should be written in layman's language for extension workers and farmers to understand. Farmers should be required to adopt complete packages of recommendations for a maximum increase in agricultural production to the extent that they are econonioally viable. There is an urgent need for a socialist credit system to be established to serve villages* Refresher or in-service courses for junior and senior agricultural extension workers should be arranged annually or after every two years. Finally, an intensive political education campaign should be launched for villagers particularly village council members, to enlighten them on the meaning, demands, and relevanoo of socialism in their own context.
Training for agriculture and rural development in Tanzania : an analysis of structural forms, operational procedures and related environmental factors
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 1984) Gonsalves, Julian Fa
The role of training in human resource development is assessed through this study of the state of the art in Tanzania* An analysis was conducted of the forces and factors influencing the effectiveness of four training programs with a major focus on 1) identification of the nature of practical problems in planning* organizing* and Implementing training* and 2) generating theoretical notions and concepts pertaining to the various dimensions of villager level training* Following a grounded theory approach* both qualitative and quantitative data were generated using village Level surveys* Interviews* and documentary analysis* Six themes emerged: needs assessment and other training related research; selection and recruitment of trainees* factors affecting the response of villagers to training* delivery systems for training* Instructional content* methods and materials* and post—course follow-up. Current needs assessment efforts were formal* structured and restricted to general village needs* Problem specific studies were found to result In a better design of training* Complex and detailed surveys reduced client control and resulted in inordinate delays* The responsibility for trainee selection has shifted from the extension worker to the village chairperson or the village council* Long duration and/or residential courses adversely affect the attendance of adults* and especially women• Sexually defined roles within the household and on the farm result in a differential response from different family members* Educational background per se did not affect the response to short duration courses* Village based short courses and demonstrations were the most preferred instructional approaches* Training impact was often determined by the quality and intensity of follow— up. The non—availability of material inputs limited the utilization of training skills. The study suggests the need to consolidate rather than expand the existent network of residential centres while gradually increasing their village outreach activities. An Improved representation of adults* especially women was considered necessary. Further research pertaining to socio—psychological determinants of trainee response* cost—effeetiveness/cost—benefits* comparative studies of residential and village based approaches and barriers to women's response are recommended. This study then suggests important areas for theory and program development and the charting of future research efforts.
A comparative analysis of job design characteristics, organizational structure and personal characteristics affecting job satisfaction of extension agents In two extension organizations in Tanzania.
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 1990) Mollel, Naftali Medoti
The present study was designed to compare two extension organizations in Tanzania: Commodity extension and General extension. Comparisons were made at three levels. First, to determine whether the two organizations differ in levels of job satisfaction; second, to determine whether the two organizations also differ in organizational structure, job design characteristics and personal characteristics of extension agents; and third, to determine whether the independent variables could explain the differences in levels of job satisfaction between the two extension organizations. Data were collected through a questionnaire distributed to extension agents during their monthly meetings. Data for the study came from 120 General extension agents and 64 Commodity extension agents. Additional information was obtained through personal and group interviews and analysis of documents. The major findings of the study are as follows: 1. Both at the individual and organizational level of analysis Commodity extension had significantly higher scores on satisfaction with supervision and satisfaction with promotion. 2. Differences in satisfaction with supervision could be explained by differences in formalization, autonomy and feedback. 3. Differences in satisfaction with promotion could be explained by differences in formalization and years of agricultural training. From these findings the following recommendations are suggested: 1. To enhance satisfaction with supervision extension organizations should develop effective communication channels to increase extension agents’ awareness of rules and procedures governing their jobs. Further, tasks and activities performed by extension agents should be structured to provide autonomy and feedback. 2. Satisfaction with promotion can be increased by developing programs to increase extension agents knowledge of the rules, procedures and communications governing their work and the organization and by developing a promotion policy that takes into account individual levels of agricultural training.
A study of the Sokoine University extension project and its impact on extension work at the village level in Tanzania.
(University College Dublin, 1991) Lugeye, Sizya C.
The study examined the impact of the Sokoine Extension Project (SEP) on the farmers' and extension workers' (Bwana Shambas) activities and programmes in solving the food and cash crop production problems in the villages of Morogoro region, Tanzania. It also investigated the effectiveness of the SEP in developing the capacity of the extension system and in accelerating agricultural developments at village level in the study area. In doing so, the main emphasis was to assess the extension workers' and farmers' performance in the SEP activities and programmes and in particular the farmers' changes in food production, food sufficiency and cash crop production as a result of the extension intervention.
Land use planning and quantitative modelling in Tanzania with particular reference to agriculture and deforestation: Some theoretical aspects and a case study from the west Usambara mountains
(Agricultural University of Norway, 1993) Kaoneka, A R.S.
Land use planning in Tanzania is an important issue due to serious land use problems caused by a host of factors. One of the reasons causing the general land use problem is stiff competition between forestry and agriculture. In the forest sector per se we find problems related to competition between the production of wood products, watershed protection, tourism, nature conservation, deforestation through encroachment, both legal and illegal logging activities. All these activities very much influence the future prospects of natural forest reserves. In agriculture land use problems emanate basically from inefficient farm management practices caused by socio-economic factors. The broad objective of this study has been to improve on the body of knowledge related to land use planning, modelling and management of the land use in Tanzania with particular relevance to an integrated management of forestry, agriculture and nature conservation. The more specific objectives are to: (i) present an overview of major land use planning problems in Tanzania in general and in the Usambaras in particular, (ii) evaluate some of the existing planning models regarding their suitability for application in multiple land use planning in Tanzania and discuss the optimal balance between quantitative modelling and qualitative aspects in land use planning and multiresource management; (iii) develop linear programming and compromise programming models for analyzing fanning systems at the village level in the West Usambaras. This has been done in the enclosed four reports: Report 1: Forest related land use in Tanzania: some policy and socio-economic aspects. Report 2: Land use in the West Usambara Mountains: analysis of ecological and socio economic aspects with special reference to forestry. A theoretical review and application of some land use planning models with Report 3: relevance for application in Tanzania. Application of economic analyses and mathematical programming in land use Report 4: planning at the village level in West Usambara Mountains. The application of quantitative modelling in Tanzania has been fairly limited, yet this study has indicated that there are considerable prospects for increased scope of application. The analysis of this study, inter alia, indicates that the present farming systems in the West Usambaras are not sustainable for more than about 30 years, and that the pressure from agriculture on forest lands would be high. This suggests that, in order to make the existing farming systems sustainable, it is important to improve farming technology which could increase crop production through improvements of land productivity and increase income from other sources. The government has failed to provide adequate measures to counter-balance the effect of population increases, thereby setting in motion a devolutionary cycle of increasing population densities and declining welfare. Therefore, as a matter of policy, it is important to redress this downward trend through a combined effort of politicians, extension workers and the farmers themselves. The overriding strategy should be to ensure long-term maintenance and improvement of the welfare of the local populace.My interest in land use planning, especially from farming and forestry point of view, is based on the fact that I was bom and brought up in a peasantry society. Our village lies in the immediate environs of a natural forest reserve from which we obtain a variety of materials. During my childhood I grew up with increasing realization of the importance of forests and farming activities. Therefore it is not by chance that I took interest in analyzing farming systems in this study. In pursuit of this study I received assistance and cooperation from various institutions and individuals. The Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (NORAD) provided financial sponsorship for the study. The Department of Forestry, Agricultural University of Norway, accepted me as a Dr. Scient. student and provided logistical support I spent one year (1990/91) doing course-work at the School of Forestry, Northern Arizona University, U.S.A., where I received academic and logistical support from both faculty and administrative staff. Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro, granted me study leave to pursue the Ph.D programme. Professor Dr. Birger Solberg, The Norwegian Forest Research Institute, initiated, inspired and guided me diligently throughout the study period, and has read and commented on all four reports. Dr. Prem Sankhayan, Senior Economist at the Centre for Sustainable Development, Agricultural University of Norway, encouraged me in mathematical modelling, and has read and commented on Report Number 4 of this study. Prof. Dr. Aaron S.M. Mgeni, Department of Mensuration and Management, Sokoine University of Agriculture, has read and commented on Reports 1 and 2. Mr. Gerald C. Monela, Lecturer, Department of Forest Economics, Sokoine University of Agriculture, has read and commented on Reports 1 and 2 as well as chapter 3 of Report Number 4. Dr. Stein T. Holden, Associate Professor, Department of Economics and Social Sciences, Agricultural University of Norway, has read and commented on Reports 1 and 2. Prof. Dr. Aku O’Kting’ati, Head, Department of Forest Economics, Sokoine University of Agriculture provided logistical support during field work in Tanzania. Ms. Grethe Delbeck typed and retyped Report Number 3 of the study. Ms. Kari Solberg, as a true mother, gave me moral support during the course of the study. Finally my family has had to tolerate my long absence from home. I missed my mothers sweet porridge! Prof. Shabani A.O. Chamshama took great care of the family during my absence. To all these institutions and persons I wish to say SHUKRAN.
A study of the factors influencing offtake and marketing of milk and milk products around Dodoma town
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 1993) Araudoba Chigunje Nicanory Harun
This work was carried out in Dodoma Urban district to study the milk production situation and the existing milk utilization options in the areas surrounding Dodoma town in central Tanzania. The study was carried out by the use of a questionnaire, observations and direct recording. Fifty producer households and 61 non - producer households were interviewed. In addition, a total of 20 batches of milk produced by 20 households were evaluated for fat recovery efficiency using traditional churning methods. The results showed that there were on average 33 head of cattle per household. Cattle demography composed of 46% cows, of which 21 % were in milk; 15 % heifers, 21% males and 24 % calves. The calving rate was less than 50%. The lactation length was on average 9.72 ± 2.34 months with a coefficient of variation of 24%. were 17.6% and 3.8% Mortality rates for calves and adult cattle respectively. On average 70 % of the cows produced milk in the range of 0.25 - 0.50 1 of milk per day, while the rest produced above 0.50 to 2.00 1 per day. Watering of animals was done once per day in 94 % of the herds and for the rest it was done twice per day. Grazing time was on average 7.38h for herds that grazed continuously during the day and 6.48h for herds that had partial rest in kraals during the day. Producer households utilized 43.5 X, 32.0 X and 23.4X of the consumption milk and for sales consumers obtained direct processing, household Non respectively. milk through purchases. producer of the 61 non-producer households, 57 % obtained milk within the village, 28.6 % between 2 and 10 km and 14 % from more than 10 km. Consuming households living far away from the producers were supplied with milk through bicycle-boys as intermediaries. Milk price which ranged between TSh.26.60 and TSh.120.00 per litre of milk was positively correlated (r = 0.68 ) to distance from the source. For producer households, the amount of milk sold was significantly dependent (P< milk 0.001) on total production per household per day. Household consumption and household processing decreased the amount of milk sold significantly (P<0.001). Family size was positively and significantly (P< 0.05) correlated to herd size, milk output and processing with daily coefficients of correlations of 0.69, 0.66 and 0.66 respectively. Only fermented milk, butter and ghee were found to be produced with buttermilk as a by - product in the fat recovery process. The capacity of gourds that were used in churning sour milk ranged between 4.5 to 28.0 1 while the average volume of milk churned was 3.6 1 (range 7.5 1) representing a churn capacity fill of 31 average (range 1 .3 to x on 6.8 to 62.5 X). The sour milk churned had a pH range of 3 to 5 and was churned at an average temperature of 26 :C. Churning time averaged 28.8 minutes (range 10 to 50 minutes). Overall efficiency of fat recovery using traditional churning methods ranged between 57.5 % and 85 % It is concluded management systems, coefficients with an average of 71.6 % that the production levels and milk marketing and milk processing found in this study are similar to those reported elsewhere for traditional agro-pastoral systems in Africa. Recommendations that could bring improvements in all the aspects studied are given about
Land use assessment in reserve lands: a case study of Mboole-Muyonzo traditional land in Zambia
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 1993) Mulongo, Manford Chilube
Reliable and up to date information about land use practices and available land resources in an area is essential for successful resource development and conservation. A land use assessment study was carried out in Mboole-Muyonzo Traditional Land, within the Tonga-Choma Reserve Land No. 21 in Southern Zambia. The objectives of the study were (a) to assess current land utilisation and management, (b) to assess land use change and demographic change between 1970 and 1991, and 1969 and 1990 respectively, and (c) to estimate future land requirement in the year 2000, assuming all other factors are held constant except population growth. Sequential aerial photography was used in assessing land use change during the study period. The study also attempted to project human population in the year 2000 using the exponential population growth model. A field survey was carried out to assess land utilisation and management and resource degradation in the area. The results of the study are: human population more than doubled in two decades with 5% annual growth, cultivated land expanded by 68.4% between 1970 and 1991, cattle stocking level was 2.4 ha/beast/year at the time of the survey (i.e. 40-60% overstocking) and available grazing land was less than half the requirement, and shortage of good arable land has forced the inhabitants to cultivate the hilly terrain resulting in all forms of soil erosion. The study also established that land shortage in the area was more as a result of the 1969 coercive displacement of people to give way for the Batoka ranch project than of rapid population growth. Changes in land tenure structure and land distribution pattern in the province are advisable. Periodic surveillance and monitoring land utilisation on both reserve lands and state land farming areas through sequential aerial photography and sequential geographical analysis techniques is a must if the nation is to succeed in resolving the problems of land degradation in reserve lands and land idleness in state land farming areas. Relocation of some families (e.g.the 13.6% who own 44.4% of the cattle) is advisable. Initiating a land and water management project with livestock development,grazing land management,and soil-and-water conservation as major project components is strongly recommended in the area.
Reforming Tanzania’s agricultural extension system: the challenges ahead
(1994) Mattee, A. Z.
The agricultural extension system in Tanzania has faced many problems, of which the key seems to be the poor institutional, administrative and organizational structure of the extension services. Recently, the Tanzanian government, with the assistance of the World Bank launched a major restructuring of the country's extension system including the introduction of the training and visit (T and V) extension. The T and V extension has some inherent weaknesses particularly if implemented without any modification to the Tanzanian context, due to lack of resources and other complimentary services. Recommendations are given to make the T and V system of extension more effective under Tanzanian conditions.
The effect of low tannin sorghum (tegemeo variety) as a replacement of maize in broiler diets.
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 1994) Allen Zakayo Griffin Gilbert
A study was carried out to investigate the possibility of replacing maize with low tannin sorghum (Tegemeo variety) as an energy source in broiler diets. Three hundred and twenty, week old broiler chicks were fed on four diets in which maize was replaced by sorghum at 0, 33.3, 66.7 and 100% levels, for dietary treatment A, B, C and D, respectively. The control diet contained maize as the only cereal grain. Twenty birds per group were randomly assigned to the four dietary treatments. Liveweight, daily gain, cumulative feed intake and feed gain ratio(FGR) were measured weekly. At eight weeks of age, sixteen birds from each treatment were picked at random and slaughtered for the analyses of their carcass characteristics. Dressing percentage, gizzard, heart, liver and abdominal fat as proportions of carcass weight were determined. At six weeks of age, sixteen male birds were used in the balance trial to determine the metabolizable energy. Mean proximate composition of low tannin sorghum for crude protein, crude fibre, ether extract, nitrogen free extracts and ash was 12.1, 5.4, 3.0, 65.3 and 1.6%, respectively. Calcium and phosphorus content were 0.03 and 0.2%, respectively. iii Liveweight gains, feed gain ratio and dressing percentage were not significantly affected by the dietary treatments. Substitution of sorghum for maize significantly decreased the proportionate weights of internal organs. Proportionate weights of liver and abdominal fat increased with increasing level of sorghum in the diets, whereas that of gizzard and heart decreased. Mean metabolizable energy values not corrected for nitrogen retention were 9.6, 10.9, 8.9 and 8.0 MJ/kgDM, whereas the mean nitrogen - corrected metabolizable energy values were 8.8, 10.0, 8.1 and 7.1 MJ/kgDM, for diet A, B, C and D, respectively. Mean true metabolizable energy values were 9.6, 11.0, 8.9 and 7.8 MJ/kgDM, respectively. From these findings it can be seen that, low tannin sorghum (Tegemeo variety) can entirely replace maize in the broiler diets, without causing any adverse effects on performance.
Information and the problems of urban agriculture in Tanzania:intentions and realizations
(University of British Columbia, 1995) Malongo, M.R.S
Peasant grain storage and marketing in Tanzania :a case study of Maize in Sumbawanga District
(Au fl. - Berlin, 1995) Ashimogo, Gasper
Maize is the major staple cereal grain in Tanzania and it plays an important role in the country's food security and income to smallholder farmers. In response to the crisis which has faced the agricultural sector since independence in 1961, reforms in grain marketing were instituted as part of broader macroeconomic changes beginning in 1984. These liberalisation policies also affected the smallholder farmers' grain storage and marketing patterns. The main objective of this research was to investigate peasants' patterns of maize storage and marketing and the consequent effects of these patterns on spatial and seasonal efficiency as well as food security and income distribution under the auspices of liberalisation. The study builds on the concepts of spatial and temporal efficiency as well as the agricultural household models and uses Sumbawanga, a maize surplus district, as a case study. Analyses are based on questionnaire surveys conducted among 120 farmers and 14 traders, weekly price data from four villages and the main Sumbawanga town market, and monthly loss assessments of grain stored by 20 farmers in the 1992/93 marketing season. The study reveals that maize production and storage are mainly undertaken to meet household consumption and cash needs. Quantity of maize harvested and household size are the main factors which influence the allocation of maize between sales and consumption. Due to lack of storage facilities for large-scale farmers, unreliable market outlets, and liquidity constraints maize sales are concentrated in the low-price harvest period. Traders play a minimal role in grain storage due to a lack of capital. The market efficiency analysis revealed three main aspects: (1) Rural markets in Sumbawanga district are well integrated into the Sumbawanga town market. However, the degree of integration differs between villages mainly due to differences in accessibility and distance from the central markets. (2) Although spatial price differences are largely a function of the transfer costs there is little possibility for profit maximisation from maize trade within the district. (3) The temporal price efficiency is generally low and is lower at nominal interest rates of below 50 %.Consequent of the existing storage and marketing patterns one third of the sample farmers did not have enough consumption maize to last until the next harvest. These were forced to buy from the market during the high-price pre harvest season. Policy interventions to increase maize production could assist in reducing poverty and food insecurity in the distric
The role of indigenous technical knowledge in increased food production in Tanzania
(Agris.fao.org, 1995) Lupanga, I. J.; Mvena, Z. S. K.; Forster, P. G.
The study examines ways of linking research, extension and farmers through a two-way exchange of both indigenous technical knowledge (ITK) and scientific knowledge in order to increase food crop production in Tanzania. Specifically the studied sought to establish: the amount of ITK regarding maize, wheat, beans and round potatoes in 15 villages; the extent to which indigenous and conventional scientific knowledge are employed by farmers; the relationship between the use by farmers of ITK and conventional scientific knowledge, and socioeconomic parameters; and the utilization of findings from the study in drawing up policy implications with regard to the planning of the research and extension efforts in Tanzania for improved agricultural production. The study area comprised three major food producing districts in the southern Highlands of Tanzania, namely, Njombe, Mbeya, and Mbinga. A total of 1020 farmers was sampled through semi-structured interviews during two research visits to the areas, first in June 1989 and then between November 1989 and March 1990. The results of the study identify a great deal of ITK within the communities covered and highlight the need for extension agents to utilize this resource.
Child Labour in Urban Agriculture: The Case of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
(Board of Regents of the University of Colorado, 1995) Mlozi, Malongo R.S
Urban agriculture in Dar es Salaam was found to use child labour of both children with parents of higher and lower socioeconomic status (SES). Child labour in urban agriculture was due to four interrelated factors: the failure to adequately enforce gov- ernment regulations; economic austerity; parental expectations for economic contri- bution; and the children's obligations to their families. In some cases there was child labour exploitation. Efforts should be initiated by the government to stop the exploitation of child labour by ratifying the international minimum working age of 14, and by enforcing laws and regulations governing children's rights. Parents of lower SES should be educated to not expect an economic contribution from their chil- dren's labour, and children should also be educated about their rights. Children of lower SES parents should be made aware that their parents' obligations should not be fulfilled at the expense of their future well-being.
Urban Agriculture: Ethnicity, Cattle Raising and Some Environmental Implications in the City of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
(Cambridge University Press, 1997) Mlozi, Malongo R.S
The paper discusses data collection and analysis. It provides a review of literature on both urban agriculture and the environmental degradation that livestock can cause. The paper then uses the model to explain factors that encourage people to raise cattle, and then concludes and offers policy recommendations for averting environmental degradation.
Impacts of urban agriculture in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
(The Environmentalist, 1997) Mlozi, Malongo R.S
Urban agriculturalists keeping mainly cross-bred dairy cattle in four different density areas in the city of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania were investigated as to whether they had information about the damaging effects of their animals on the environment. They responded to questions related to ®ve issues of animal activity that damaged the urban environment. The ®ndings revealed that, on average, all four socioeconomic groups possessed information about the damaging effects which their animals caused. Moreover, the people of the highest and quasi-medium socioeconomic status, who in turn kept the most cattle, were the most aware. Most agriculturalists keeping cattle, therefore, lived with the contradiction that they recognized the damaging effects of the animals. Using a conceptual model, several reasons are given as to why people persist in keeping the cattle. These reasons reside at four levels: government, ministry, city council and the individuals who keep cattle. After examining the reasons for keeping dairy cattle in the city, the author proposes changes at all four levels to reduce the serious urban environmental damage.
Preliminary observations on factors responsible for long persistence and continued outbreaks of plague in Lushoto district, Tanzania
(Elsevier, 1997-06-06) Kilonzo, B.S.; Mvena, Z.S.K.; Machangu, R.S.; Mbise, T.J.
Human plague has been an important public health problem in Tanzania for over a century. Recorded outbreaks of the disease have been reported from various parts of Tanzania, including Iringa, Kagera, Singida, Mbulu, Arusha and Kilimanjaro since 1886. Since 1980 however, only Lushoto, Singida and Karatu districts have experienced outbreaks of the disease. Of these areas, Lushoto has disproportionately high incidences of the disease and this has persisted for nearly 17 years. Efforts to curb the disease through conventional methods, including control of vectors and reservoirs, chemotherapy and chemoprophylaxis, enforcement of sanitation improvement as well as health education, have been applied every year, but plague cases and deaths continue to occur in the area to date. During the period April 1980 to December 1996, a total of 6599 cases with 580 (8.8%) deaths were recorded. Biological factors, such as the presence of suitable rodent reservoirs, efﬁcient ﬂea vectors and plague bacillus, could be partly responsible for the long persistence and reccurence of the disease. Since such factors are also common in other plague foci where the disease has never been persistently recurrent, and where indigenous people are culturally different from those in Lushoto, it is assumed that socio-cultural factors play an important role as determinants of the disease in the latter district. This paper reports preliminary observations on socio-cultural, biological and environmental factors which are thought to be, at least partly, responsible for the long persistence and repeated outbreaks of plague in the district. These include traditional beliefs on the cause and health seeking behaviour for treatment of plague sleeping and food storage habits, large populations of rodents and ﬂeas, and status of the immediate environment. © 1997 Elsevier Science B.V.
The agrarian constitution of Zanzibar and its impact on agricultural development.
(University of Bonn, 1998) Krain, Eberhard
The title of this thesis is "the Agrarian Constitution oj Zanzibar and Its Impact on Agricultural Development''. Six elements were investigated in this dissertation: (i) the laws and law-like rules governing land ownership and land use, (ii) the succession to land and tree crops, (iii) the agricultural labor system, (iv) agricultural credit, (v) co-operatives, and (vi) the system of social security. Data were eolleeted in Zanzibar between 1990 and 1994. Zanzibar is a semi-autonomous urea of the United Republic of Tanzania. East Africa. Various formal and informal instruments of socio-economic research were applied during the research. Literature searches, interviews with key informants, semi-structured discussions with groups of male and female farmers, structured interviews with 360 heads of households in six villages, as well as numerous case and in-depth studies were conducted. The agrarian constitution is defined as the order that has been molded by law and custom and that determines agriculture and the course of life in the agrarian society (LlPINSKY. 1990/91 b; Lipinsky. 1981).The agrarian constitution of Zanzibar is the product of a number of important influences. In the less fertile coral rag area villagers, in many instances, follow rules that derive from African customary law (“mila”). in the fertile plantation area, where Arabs settled since the beginning of the 19th century, Islamic-Arabic laws and customs (Sheria) have been introduced and have had a lasting impact that, until today, extend to the whole of Zanzibar. British influence started with the establishment of a protectorate over Zanzibar in 1897 and continued until independence in 1963. In 1964, during the Zanzibar Revolution, a one-party government, which pursued a firm socialist command economy, was established. One of the most important measures of the new government was a radical land reform that nationalized the land of Arab landlords and redistributed the land to African small-holders. The curtailing and change of various agrarian laws and rules as well as dirigistic measures led to a steady decline in agricultural production, from 1984 onwards, more liberal policies were introduced and laws, in particular land laws, were reviewed. Subsequently important improvements — although not to the desired degree — were legislated. Particularly noteworthy in this respect are the new Land Tenure Act and the Registered Land Act, which have enabled some land transfer-rights (registration, sale, charge, lease). Although the new laws stipulate that land ownership remains vested in the state, important prerequisites have been created that may lead to increased and more sustainable agricultural production. The introduction of a multi-party system in 1992 and a multi-party election in 1995 provides hope that further improvements in the agrarian constitution of Zanzibar will receive the necessary political support to improve the socio-economic frame conditions for agriculture and life in the rural areas.
The role of women in household food security in Morogoro rural and Kilosa districts
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 1998) Ishengoma, Christine Gabriel
This study was conducted to assess the role of women in in security food household Kilosa and rural Morogoro districts. The study was conducted in six villages namely: Fulwe, Msufini, Melela, Kimamba, Kidoma It Dumila. and (24 2 women and 242 men) . involved 484 respondents; Data were collected using structured questionnaires. Field questionnaires. statistics, Descriptive the supplemented data secondary and observations and chi-square multiple regression were used in the analysis. The results inadequate 1996/97, «v showed in mainly 63% due Household that: of the households inadequate to food in security was 1995/96 and (77.6%) , production early sale of produce (17.2%) and storage losses (6.2%). Males and females in the study area shared the same tasks on more or less equal basis, production and both in food and cash crop generating income activities. Women dominated in all activities of food crop production with the exception of site clearing (3.3%) transporting (42.2%) and marketing of crops (47.2%) . Performance of household activities was dominated by females. analysis indicated that the Multiple regression contribution of women in household food securitywas quite outstanding. Their labour in processing (B = 2.964905), planting (B = 2.785432),weeding 1.764507) (B and harvesting positively with the associated total 0.181580) (B production and so were quantity of fertilizer application (B = 0.472789) and education (B = 0.147557). Lack of access to capital/income (49.6%), drought . (18.8%), (12.0%), decision making power access to time agricultural knowledge (1.2%) (8.2%), and limited women contribution to household food security. Lack of access to land (5.4%) was specifically important in Kimamba village (42.9%). Reduction of meal frequency and of amount of food consumed (19.8%) , casual labour (18.2%), petty business (17.8%) and buying of food (9.9%) were the dominant coping strategies during food shortages. From the study the following recommendations are offered: There is need to improve women decision making power and accessibility to resources. For improvement of food security production of Households need to be encouraged to various foodstuffs in need the study to be area, increased. stock enough crops after harvesting and early sale of food crops should be discouraged.There is a need to improve storage Communal methods. granary could serve during the food shortages provided the pest problem is avoided. Women should be encouraged to engage in income generating activities. Extension services to these women farmers need to be improved, reliable and timely. Barter system between harvests and acquiring agricultural inputs need encouragement. This study, identifies several possible research areas. It is therefore more focused food storage, recommended studies sale of in that further connection food crops research with local and income include brewing, generating activities with special emphasis on women who are the key actors.
The role of informal and semi-formal finance in poverty alleviation in Tanzania: Results of a field study in two regions
(REPOA, 1998) Kashuliza, A. K.; Hella, J. P.; Magayane, F. T.; Mvena, Z. S. K.
Liberalization policies implemented in Tanzania after the mid 1980s have created some impetus to the growth of informal and semi-formal finance and credit operations in the country. This study set out to investigate the modus operandi and performance of some selected informal and semi-formal credit arrangements in two regions of the country (Mbeya and Iringa). Data for the study were collected between January to March, 1996 from a total of two hundred farmers (the majority of whom used informal and semi-formal credit), ten informal lenders, ten input stockists and fourteen semi-formal lenders (including NGOs). Survey information collected by the study indicates that the main sources of informal credit for smallholders are: relatives, neighbours and friends, shop owners and businessmen, and medium and large scale farmers. Such credit is used for both consumption and production activities. Overall, informal lending is still far from being a specialized activity, rather it is a side activity integrated into the enterprise undertakings of various farmers, businessmen and shop owners. A variety of semi-formal lenders are operating in the rural areas mainly providing production credit (often accompanied with some training, supervision, and interest on loans which are generally lower than commercial rates). Some of the semi-lenders target specific groups such as women, youth, farmers of certain crops etc. Most of the semiformal credit channels studied have poor records of loan collection partly because such programmes were being set up without elaborate procedures for education and collection of loans from farmers. Both informal and semi-formal credit access are linked with the attempt to alleviate poverty in several ways including: ability to cultivate larger farms, getting higher crop yields, and better food security status than before (or in comparison to farmers without credit access). Thus more efforts should be made by Government and relevant institutions to promote the development and growth of informal as well as semi-formal credit channels for them to be more effective tools in the efforts to alleviate poverty.
Adoption of rainwater harvesting technologies 'by farmers in Tanzania. with particular reference to the western pare lowlands
(1999) Senkondo, E.M.M.; Lazaro, E.A.; Kajiru, G.J.
Adoption of technology is an important factor in economic development. Successful introduction of technologies in the developing countries requires an understanding of the priorities and concerns of the smallholder farmers at the grassroots. This paper presents experiences of adoption studies in the Western Pare Lowlands, identifying the factors affecting adoption, constraints to adoption and methodological problems in studying adoption of RWH technologies. A survey approach was the main method used to collect the data from a sample of 86 farmers. The data collected were analysed using descriptive statistics and estimation of empirical model to determine the factors affecting adoption of RWH technologies. The empirical model used was logit regression, Important factors affecting the adoption of RWH were identified as number of plots owned by farmers and the sex of the head of household. Constraints in the adoption of RWH technologies were noted including constraints facing those who are already using the RWH technologies. Problems facing the users include difficulties with water distribution. Two important recommendations are made: First because adoption of technologies by farmers takes time, there is a need for collecting a series of data (separated in time) about adoption rather than depending on single season static data. The models used in evaluating adoption should also consider the time element, Secondly, since the main constraints to adoption is lack of technical knowledge, it is recommended that training of extension workers in RWH techniques and including RWH in the district extension package will reduce the problem of availability of technical knowledge to farmers .

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