Articles, Conference and Workshop Papers Collection

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Gender again -views of female agricultural Extension officers by smallholder farmers in Tanzania
(Elsevier Science Ltd, 1997) Due, Jean M.; Magayane, Flavianus; Temu, Anna A.
Tanzania attempts to have a village extension officer (VEO) in every village; until recent years most of the VEOs were male. Research indicated that male VEOs did not often visit female farmers and male farmers frequently did not bring extension information home to their wives. Since women contribute more of the agricultural labor than men, it was recommended that female VEOs be hired. Now one-third of the VEOs are female and males and females have the same training. What are farmers’ (male and female) views of the female VEOs? Which gender do they prefer and why? Is the modified training and visit (T and V) extension system working? Since privatization is underway in the country, do farmers want information other than on crops and livestock, which is the current emphasis? The researchers interviewed 240 male and female farmers in one region of Tanzania in October 1995 to ascertain their responses to these and other questions on agricultural extension.
Affecting the adoption of rain water harvesting technologies in western Pare lowlands of Tanzania
(1998) Mdoe, N.S.Y.; Hatibu, N.; Mahoo, H.; Gowing, J.; Senkondo, E.M.M
4,d.oPtion,oj. tech,!ology.is an importantfactor in economic development especia.lly.' in developing fountries~ s.ucc,essful introduction of technologies in d~eloping countries requires an understanding gf .the prioriti~s and concerns of smallholder fanners at the grassroots. This. paper analyses the soc,io-economic factors t~at influence the adoption of rain water harvesting (RWH) technologies tli !ye~te,!, Pare lowlands of Tanzania. Data for the study. were collected from 70 smallholder farmers {'! Kifar;uandLembeni viilages. These data were fitted in Probit and Logit models. ,The results of the Rrobit model are used to explain adoption of RWH in Western Pare lowlands because it produced b§tte[ fits compa'red with the Logit model. The results of the probit model shows that/arm size, nUmber .oj family members working in the fann, experience in fanning, and extent of knowledge in RWH techniques were significant in explaining 'the inte1}sity of adoption ofRWH techniques. Regarding farmers perceived technology ch.ara~cteristics, the results show thaUanners' appreciation .of RWH as a factor contributing to increased crop yield was positively and significantly explaining the intensity qt q,d.option o/RWH. This suggests that.!ligher yieltJS, attain(!d with the use ofRWH techniques will enc(Jurage adoption of the (echniques. It is therefore.recommended that·efforts to promote the use of RWH techniques shQuld go together with. the use of other recommended improved inputs to bring higher returns to farmers.
A Small Push Goes a Long Way: Farmers' Participation in Rainwater Harvesting Technology Development
(1999) Lazaro, E.A.; Senkondo, E.M.M.; Bakari, A.; Kishebuka, S.R.; Kajiru, G.J.
Farmer partieipation in decision making at various phases of project implementation contributes very.highly to project success. The Soil-Water Management Research Programme (SWMRP) has gained valuable experience in the involvement offarmer in all phases during the implementation of the programme .. The programme used the following instruments to ensure farmer participation: • Socio-economic ~urvey~~ including Participatory and Rapid Rural Appraisals. • Farmer participation in onjarm experimentation. • Participatory technology evaluation through workshops and seminars aimed at monitoring project ppformanqe and getting feedback from stakeholders. The process of farmer participation evolved over the duration of the project.·l!essons learnt at the begin.ning were incorporated in the research process over time. Initially, the planning of the ex-' periments did not fully allow jor farmer participation. This shortcoming was lat'er rectified, and more farmer participation was allowed. Among the achievements of the project is the construction of a water diversion canal worth about Tanzanian Shillings 1.28 million in Hedaru village, Same DistTict. The structure is currently supplying water to about 45 hectares in the village. The programme contributed only 18 % of the total cost in terms of materials (6%) and technical'supp01t (12%). Farmer participation enabled mobilization of resources w01th the remaining 82% of the total cost. The contributions were in the form of cash, labour, materials and decision making. This paper analyses the process offarmer participation in this programme and how it has influenced the pe~fo17nance of the programme. It is concluded that, with effeCtive participation, minimum extemal support (small push) can result into substantial achievements.
Market liberalisation, vertical integration and price behaviour in Tanzania’s coffee auction
(Blackwell Publishers, 2001) Temu, Anna A.; Winter-Nelson, Alex; Garcia, Philip
Whether market liberalisation can promote agricultural development in Africa depends on how well existing institutions can facilitate trade by private agents. This article assesses the performance of the Tanzania coffee marketing system after liberalisation and the emergence of private, vertically integrated exporters (VIEs). Increasing producer prices, declining marketing margins, and the continued provision of a useful auction for coffee that is delivered by traders who are not VIEs all suggest a degree of success for liberalisation. The presence of VIEs seems to have provided investment to reduce marketing costs, whilst a sufficient number of competing firms has limited non-competitive behaviour in the market for coffee that is traded at the auction by non-VIEs.
Institutional adjustment and transaction costs: product and inputs markets in the Tanzanian coffee system
(Elsevier Science Ltd, 2002) Winter-Nelson, Alex; Temu, Anna
Commodity market liberalization can improve incentives for production of export crops by reducing the total costs of transforming products through space, form and time, or by reducing the costs of arranging and completing transactions. While liberalization often leads to reduced costs in output exchange, it can remove opportunities for linked input–output transactions that sometimes lowered the costs of providing finance in state-controlled markets. Assessments of liberalization that focus on output exchange alone obscure the impact of rising transaction costs in finance. This study of liberalization in the Tanzanian coffee market documents declining costs in output marketing, rising transaction costs for financing farm activities, and differential, but generally positive, net impacts on growers.
Moving from sectoral to integrated water resources management in Tanzania: the challenges and opportunities
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2003) Kadigi, R.M. J.
As in many other countries of Southern Africa, the conventional approach to water resources management in Tanzania has generally suffered from the syndrome of lack of recognition of multi- sectoral water uses and linkages. It has focused more on a sectoral-based development of water resources (e.g., the construction of irrigation infrastructure) and less on holistic management of water resources. However, the new water policy (2002) in the country has set a scene for major changes in the water sector to ensure better integration of water resources management across sectors, which is in essence a move from the conventional (sectoral) water resource management to Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM). This intends to address participatory, multisectoral, multidisciplinary river basin management and integrate the linkages between land and water uses. Making IWRM happen on the ground is however, a hard work. It requires bringing together on a decision-making table, different stakeholders with diverging interests, complex power relationships and different perceptions: bringing together a very intricate socio-economic reality, the legacy of the conventional water management approach and its embedded practices and beliefs, and the apparently non-reconcilable conflicting demands. It is against this milieu that this paper presents a discussion of the existing water management challenges in Tanzania and the opportunities to build upon. Notwithstanding the complexity of translating the concept of IWRM into practise, the paper underscores the need to have the initial IWRM process focusing on crucial, urgent issues. For Tanzania, the entry point should be that of addressing the existing water resource conflicts, which are becoming rampant, particularly in the Rufiji and Pangani river basins; and facilitate the establishment of functioning Water Use Associations and Apex bodies. These are more likely to solve most of the existing problems of water resources management in the country.
The impact of market reforms on spatial volatility of maize price in Tanzania
(Journal of Agricultural Economics, 2004) Kilima, T. M.; Chung, C.; Kenkel, P.; Mbiha, E.
The impacts of market reforms on the volatility of agricultural prices in developing countries have not been well understood because economic theory does not provide a concrete basis for predicting the effects of reforms on the aggregate behavior of economic agents. The absence of such information weakens microeconomic and structural efforts to improve the efficiency of market institutions. This study investigates whether agricultural reforms have exacerbated the degree of spatial volatility of maize price in Tanzania. An Autoregressive Conditional Heteroskedasticity in Mean (ARCHM) model is used to identify region-specific effects of the reforms on the volatility of maize price. Results indicate that highly populated and developed regions might have experienced less volatile prices than less populated and less developed regions. The study recommends infrastructure development to link these types of regions to increase the volume of trade between the regions thereby reducing the observed spatial volatility in the long-run.
Optimal fertilizer warehousing and distribution systems for farm supply cooperatives
(NCR-194 Research on Cooperatives, 2004) Kenkel, P.; Kilima, F.
Fertilizer sales and appli cation services are important business areas for farm supply cooperatives. These firms account for roughly one-third of the $800M, which U.S. producers paid for fertilizer, lime and soil amendments in 2003 (USDA, 2004). Many cooperatives are re-examining the struct ure and organization of their fertilizer operations. A number of for ces are impacting the retail fert ilizer industry. Differential production costs have shifted the production of nitrogen-based fertilizer away from domestic manufacturers to off shore suppliers. The portion of nitrog en fertilizer imported into the U.S. grew from 21% in 1999 to 42% in 2002 (U.S. Geological Survey). The production shift has impacted the form of nitrogen fertilizers. Historically, anhydrous ammonia has been the least cost form of nitrogen fertilizer. Because the infrastructure to off-load anhydrous amm onia and transport it to demand regions is limited, the shift toward off-shore supply source s has led to a shift to urea and other dry forms of nitrogen fertilizer (Agriliance). Changing farm demographics have also contributed to the shift to dr y fertilizer forms. Large-sc ale producers typically find it more economical for the input supplier to ap ply fertilizer using la rge-scale machinery. Most agribusinesses offering custom fertilizer application concentrat e on dry and liquid (UAN) forms of nitrogen fertilizers. Secu rity concerns associ ated with theft of anhydrous ammonia for use in the illegal drug manufacturing has also contributed to the shift to dry formulations. 3 Another factor impacting the structure of cooperative fertil izer operations has been the consolidation among local coopera tives. A USDA study identified 367 mergers and consolidations among grain coop eratives during the 1993 to1997 time period (USDA, 1998). As local cooperatives cons olidate and expand their geographic trade territories they often attempt to consolidate their existing systems of multiple warehouses. Determining the feasibility of a centralized warehouse system is complex. Centralization generally reduces warehousing costs since cons truction and operating costs decrease with size. However centralization increases the warehouse-to-field transportation costs. Shifts in fertilizer product forms further increases the complexity of analyzing warehousing centralization as per-unit warehousing and tran sportation costs differ dramatically across anhydrous, dry and liquid formulations. This study pursues two objectives re lated to fertilizer warehousing and application: (1) Identify th e major cost components of a typical fertilizer warehousing and distribution system and product margins and fees needed to cover costs; (2) Determine the optimal level of warehouse centralization and equipment complement.
Impacts of prices and transactions costs on input usage in a liberalizing economy: evidence from Tanzanian coffee growers
(2004-06-15) Winter-Nelson, Alex; Temu, Anna
Despite improvements in production incentives, agricultural output in Africa remained sluggish through the 1990s. Low use of purchased inputs may be part of the cause of persistently low productivity in African agriculture. This article analyzes the roles of relative prices and transactions costs in explaining low use of chemical inputs among Tanzanian coffee growers. A sample selection model indicates that output prices exert great influence on input purchases and that both fixed and variable transactions costs affect input use decisions. Travel costs in input and output markets have distinct effects on input usage, implying distinct avenues for interventions to promote more intensive use of agricultural inputs.
Adaptive techniques for Landau–Lifshitz–Gilbert equation with magnetostriction
(Elsevier, 2005-08-25) Baˇnas∗, L’ubomír
In this paper we propose a time–space adaptive method for micromagnetic problems with magnetostriction. The considered model consists of coupled Maxwell’s, Landau–Lifshitz–Gilbert (LLG) and elastodynamic equations. The time discretization of Maxwell’s equations and the elastodynamic equation is done by backward Euler method, the space discretization is based on Whitney edge elements and linear finite elements, respectively. The fully discrete LLG equation reduces to an ordinary differential equation, which is solved by an explicit method, that conserves the norm of the magnetization.
Are price changes in the world market transmitted to markets in less developed countries? A case study of sugar, cotton, wheat, and rice in Tanzania
(IIIS, 2006) Kilima, F. T. M.
This paper investigates the extent to which world market price changes are transmitted through changes in border prices into local producer prices for four agricultural product markets in Tanzania: sugar, cotton, wheat and rice. The changes in the marketing channels for each of these products resulting from market liberalization are described. The statistical analysis finds that, in general, Tanzanian border and world market prices for these products do not move closely together, although there is evidence that border prices are influenced by world market price levels but not vice versa. The absence of monthly price data at producer level for these products did not permit a detailed examination of the relationship between farmgate prices and either border prices or world market prices. However, the qualitative discussion suggests that the extent of price transmission is likely to be imperfect. These results have implications for the interpretation of simulation results modelling the potential impact of trade policy changes on Tanzanian producers and consumers. They also underline the need for concerted efforts by policy makers to reduce the extent of monopoly power in these marketing chains and to improve the degree of price transmission.
The impact of rural, financing on the performance of small and medium enterprises: a case of Mufindi community bank
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2007) Godwin, Godfrey
The importance of small and medium enterprises sector has necessitated to the great emphasis on small and medium enterprises financing for the development of the sector. However, with the current small and medium finance institution in Tanzania, there is no sufficient documentation of the extent and strength of small and medium enterprises performance as a result of accessing credit from MFIs. The study thus aimed at evaluating the performance of SMEs a result of provision of credit from MuCoBa in Mufindi. Primary data were collected using questionnaires from selected samples of 45 small and medium respondents. Borrowers and institution respondent were interviewed f. Secondary data were collected from the university of Sokoine libraries and MuCoBa. Descriptive statistic (means, percentages, frequencies) were major tools employed in data analysis. Small and medium enterprises financing was confirmed to play a vital role in boosting sales revenues, Enterprises with access to credit employed significantly more laborers than those without credit. Many borrowers respondent (68.9 %) reported to acquire more assets than non borrowers (13.3 %). Also micro enterprises with credit have higher ability to meet their basic needs and other household’s expenses like paying school fees, meeting medical etc. Hence, SMEs financing has a major role for starting and sustainable growth of profitable enterprises for the development of SME sector. The study recommended that proper measures such as creation of favorable environment for SME sector, conducting of feasibility study to SMEs before issuing credit to SMEs, extending credit for business start up, provision of grace period to SMEs after Ioan disbursement, extension of repayment period, provision of entrepreneurship skills and business training for SMEs operators and increasing the size of the base loan.
Effects of food safety standards on the livelihoods of actors in the nile perch value chain in Tanzania
(Copenhagen, 2007) Kadigi, Reuben M. J.; Mdoe, Ntengua S.Y.; Senkondo, Ephraim; Mpenda, Zena
Exports of non-traditional products from developing to developed countries have increased rapidly over the past two decades. However, one of the major challenges facing developing countries in seeking to maintain and expand their share of global markets is stringent food-safety requirements in industrialized countries. The effects of compliance with these requirements and their distributional impacts among actors in developing countries are generally not well known. Based on this understanding, a study was conducted on the Tanzanian side of Lake Victoria (in Mwanza and Mara regions) to evaluate the effects of food-safety standards on the livelihoods of actors in the Nile perch value chain using the Livelihoods Analysis and Change in Net Income (CNI) approach. The effects of food-safety standards were imputed as the residual values be- tween the “with” and “without” compliance scenarios for a specified actor category. The results of the analysis showed that the livelihood platform and income portfolios for the “with”-compliance scenario was relatively more favourable than that in the alternative, “without”- compliance scenario. The difference in human capital and livestock holdings between fishers / crews in the two scenarios was however non-significant (P<0.05). The results of the analysis also showed that both the costs and benefits of compliance with food-safety standards were consider- able. Actors in the Nile perch export supply chain (the “with”-compliance scenario) obtained the highest gross revenues and net returns, as well as incurring the highest operating costs. However, the profit margins, assets and income portfolios for most actors upstream of the fishery value chains were generally lower in both the “with” and “without” compliance scenarios than those of the actors in the subsequent stages. The overall analysis of issues in this paper suggests the need to ensure more effective and coherent planning in order to safeguard the future of the fishery sector, ensure an appropriate regulatory framework, strengthen the capacity of the stakeholders to manage the resource sustainably, develop safeguards for ensuring an equitable distribution of fishery benefits, and increase collaboration among the riparian states of Lake Victoria between them and development partners.
Drawing on collective arrangements and social networks: a coping strategy for the poor households in the great Ruaha catchment, Tanzania
(SUA, 2007) Kadigi, Reuben M. J.; Mdoe, N.S.Y.; Mahoo, H.F.; Ashimogo, G.C.; Tumbo, S.
Access to water and land resources underpins the socio-economic fabric of many societies in the Southern Africa region, which is characterized broadly as underdeveloped with widespread food insecurity, exacerbated by persistent droughts, erratic rainfalls and increasing human populations. The availability of land and water resources is increasingly diminishing and becoming a stumbling block to the development of the agrarian societies in the region. The poor households have in turn adopted new livelihood coping mechanisms but little research has been done to assess the effectiveness of these ‘instruments’. Consequently, the concepts of sustainable water resources management and agricultural development have remained elusive and poorly understood by policy makers as well as by water resources planners and managers. Recognizing this, a study was conducted between 2002 and 2005 under the RIPARWIN (Raising Irrigation Productivity and Releasing Water for Intersectoral Needs) project to assess the spatial dynamics of livelihood capital, vulnerability and coping strategies for the poor agrarian households in the Upper Great Ruaha River Catchment (GRRC) in Tanzania. The results of analysis showed an array of livelihood platforms and institutional contexts that act to shape the existing livelihood typologies in the GRRC. In addition, the results showed a gradual increase in household vulnerability from upstream to downstream, particularly in terms of access to physical and natural assets. Vulnerability was found to be directly associated with the number of dependants. The female–headed households were relatively more likely to be vulnerable than the male-headed households (c.f. probabilities of 27% and 21% respectively). The value of collective arrangements and drawing on social networks crosscut all social strata and ranked as the most common livelihood strategy. This suggests that the scope for reducing vulnerability among the poor households in the GRRC critically depends on the existing institutional arrangements and mechanisms. Of paramount importance is perhaps the need to facilitate the establishment and empowerment of Water Use Associations and Apex bodies. This appears to be promising enough to build ‘strong’ institutional platforms through which water and land resources would be managed sustainably.
The spice industry in Tanzania: general profile, supply chain structure, and food standards compliance issues
(Danish Institute for International Studies, DIIS, 2007) Akyoo, A.; Lazaro, E.
The fall in the agricultural sector’s contribution to Tanzanian export earnings since the early 1990s has increased attention toward new crops with the potential of supplementing the country’s traditional export crops. Particular attention has been focused upon identifying crops enjoying price stability, high demand elasticity and low substitutability. Spices fall into this category. Consequently there have been efforts by public agencies and private exporters, both on the mainland and on Zanzibar, to promote the crop. However, access to high value export markets raises issues of supply chain dynamics and conformity with international standards. This paper focuses upon the recent history of the spice industry in Tanzania with reference to these issues. The main conclusions are that Certified Organic standards are the only international standards complied with, and that a very loosely coordinated chain exists alongside a more coordinated one. Macro- and micro-institutional weaknesses need attention if the full potential of the sub-sector is to be realized.
Rapid appraisal of policies &institutional frameworks for agricultural water management
((IMAWESA), 2007-11)
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The purpose of the country study was to investigate how policies or institutional frameworks affected or would have affected agricultural water management (AWM) programmes or projects between 1985 and 2005. The study was designed with five outputs, namely to: i) articulate key policies that had or would have had impact on AWM over different periods between 1985 and 2005,;ii) articulate key institutional frameworks (legal, regulatory and organizational) that had or would have had impact on AWM over different policy periods between 1985 and 2005; iii) determine quantitatively and/or qualitatively, the impact of policies and institutional frameworks on the access of smallholders to agricultural water, and performance and outcomes of relevant AWM programmes or projects; iv) assess the necessary and optimal stakeholder participation in AWM policy formulation process; and v) document the process of analysis of the policy and institutional framework for AWM. The methodology for carrying out the study involved identification of policies, institutional frameworks and AWM programmes and projects operated between 1985 and 2005. This process was followed by collection of relevant documents relating to the same from concerned programmes, projects, offices, line ministries, the Internet, and conducting limited interviews. Through desk review of documents of several policies, institutional frameworks, programmes and projects, relevant information was extracted. The study found several issues regarding policies and institutional frameworks that had impact on programme and project performance and impact and are explained below. • Policies recognized the importance of agricultural water in increasing agricultural productivity; however, in the past policies (1985 – 1996), agricultural water was envisioned from the perspective of large scale irrigation. Most of the programmes/projects on AWM analyzed in this study lacked the components of rainwater harvesting (RWH). Recently, other components of AWM particularly RWH, which has a strong bearing on smallholder farmers for crop and livestock production, have been recognized in the policy arena. • The issue of linkage to markets, as a policy issue, was not considered in the design of AWM projects, especially those undertaken in the first policy period (1985-1996/97). Such supply biased AWM efforts did not assure farmers of meaningful returns from their investments (labour, land and water). Disconnection to profitable markets undermined farmers’ participation. Even where productivity was improved it was not sustained after the project. This is because of lack of a demand-pull effect that would have assured farmers profitable returns to investment. • The implication of institutional frameworks on AWM is far-reaching. The effects of some regulations might seem to be distant to issues of AWM, but this study has proved otherwise. For instance, the public procurement procedures proved to be the critical problem which affected AWM programmes and projects. Bureaucratic procedures embedded in the public procurement processes with aspects of tendering and contracting, caused serious delays in project implementation. • Furthermore, where the Government, which is the institution managing the procurement, had a share to contribute in the project budget, the disbursement of the funds was not timely and always less than the promised amount. • Most documents of programmes and projects on AWM claimed to have improved access of poor rural people to improved water management. For example, the smallholder development project for marginal areas in Chikuyu irrigation scheme realized yield increment from 1.2 tons/ha before project intervention to 4.0 tons/ha after the project. Interventions of the Traditional Irrigation and Environmental Organization have influenced the willingness of individual farmers to invest in AWM. • Though programmes and projects registered positive impact on poor rural people, participation by farmers in programmes and projects has remained a problem even though the policies and institutional frameworks urge for local participation. Farmers are engaged at some point in the course of the project and are always left out during design, or their views are overruled by the technocrats. For example, in the Usangu Village Irrigation Project, farmers were engaged at the implementation stage during construction of an intake. Although the project started with prior discussion with leaders, the leaders did not convey the message to farmers. iii IMAWESA Policy Study for Tanzania • Stakeholders’ participation has been the strong component in the process of formulation of policies used by this study to draw lessons. Stakeholders were involved from different domains, ranging from technocrats, donors, private sector, public sector, farmers and the general public. From the general public, special groups such as persons with disabilities, persons living with HIV/AIDS, widows, youth and women were involved in the national wide consultation process. Based on the findings, the following policy-relevant recommendations are made: • To fast-track significant and rapid growth in the agriculture sector which is required in poverty reduction, AWM interventions should, apart from conventional irrigation, embark on other components of agricultural water such as RWH and water innovations in rainfed systems. • The paradigm of ‘local participation’ has to be reexamined. A mere presence of farmers in the dialogues that overrule their opinions is not what is meant by participation. Participation of farmers at certain stages especially during implementation as opposed to planning is not participation. The PADEP approach has to be adapted in the future AWM programmes. Smallholder farmers have to identify sub projects and be facilitated to put down proposals and action plans. • Reforms are needed in the regulatory frameworks such as public procurement procedures to make them less bureaucratic. The tendering, contracting and pre-qualification requirements are lengthy and highly procedural. One body can be formed in the agricultural ministry to deal with agriculture-related procurements, as agriculture projects are sensitive to time. • Participation of stakeholders in policy formulation process is vital in determining how the policies will be actualized. Although a good mix of stakeholders was involved in the policy formulation process, the participatory structures were formed on ad hoc basis. We recommend that a standard way of obtaining the mix and contributions be developed that can be adapted in the formulation of different policies
An accounting method-based cost-benefit analysis of conformity to certified organic standards for spices in Tanzania
(Copenhagen 2008 Danish Institute for International Studies, DIIS, 2008) Akyoo, A.; Lazaro, E.
Certified organic farming has emerged as a market channel providing participating African small- holders with access to high value markets in the EU. The benefits may include not only a guaranteed produce market, but also premium prices, and higher net revenues. Where training in organic farming techniques is provided there may be also benefits in terms of increased yield. The major cost challenges are those for certification, although in many cases donor support to export- ers is available to cover these. This study quantifies the costs and benefits of complying with the certified organic standard for members of black pepper and chilli contract farming schemes in two districts in Tanzania. It is based on survey data from 2006-07 based on samples of scheme members and control groups. In both cases none of the potential benefit listed above were realized. This is the result of absent price premiums and, in the case of at least one scheme, wider contract failure. Adoption of re- commended organic practices by members of the schemes was also low. Learning from more successful schemes, recruitment of larger and better organized exporters and design of more effective contracts are some of the changes recommended for future schemes in Tanzania.
The capacity of on-farm research in reducing poverty: Experiences from twenty seven projects in Tanzania
(Tanzania J.Agric.Sc, 2008) Tarimo, A. J. P.; Johnsen, F. H.; Nchimbi-Msolla, S.; Mbaga, S.; Kilima, F. T. M.; Sesabo, J.; Abdallah, J. M.; Iranga, G.
Poverty can be categorized into income poverty and non-income poverty. At the smallscale Jarmers level income poverty results Jrom low productivity oj agricultural enterprises. hence low sales oj products. On the other hand. non income poverty encompasses a wide range oj live phenomena, including level oj education, poor survival strategies, poor nutritional status. lack oj clean and saJe drinking water, poor social wellbeing, vulnerability , etc. In 2000/01 about 62% oj households in Tanzania succumbed to income poverty. While the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) was silent on research as one oj the strategic approaches to reduce poverty in Tanzania, a study was conducted between 2001 and 2004 by Sokoine University oj Agriculture (SUA) in collaboration with the Agricultural Sector Lead Ministries (ASLMs) to evaluate the effectiveness oj onjarm research and development (R&D) approaches in bringing about poverty reduction amongst the smallholder Jarmers in the country. The study was based on 27 projects under Tanzania Agricultural Research Project Phase II (TARPII) managed by SUA (TARPII-SUA) conducted in the Eastern and Southern Highlands Zones oj country. By responding to a questionnaire. smallholder Jarmers evaluated technologies introduced through research. Results have shown that smallholder Jarmers' poverty could be signijkantly reduced by inb'oducing appropriate technologies. Thus. on average, participating Jarmers observed reductions in income poverty by the period oj this study. It is concluded that introduction oj technologies through onJarm research increases technology adoption and reduces income poverty.
Sustainability standards and coffee exports from Tanzania
(DIIS · DANISH INSTITUTE FOR INTERNATIONAL STUDIES, 2008) Lazaro, E. A.; Makindara, J.; Kilima, T. M.
One of the key trends characterizing agro-food trade in the last two decades has been the increas-ing complexity of public and private standards that are applied to imports into developed coun-tries. This paper aims to identify critical areas to facilitate compliance with sustainability standards in coffee, which is the major traditional export crop for Tanzania. Coffee experienced a dramatic downward trend in world market prices that led to a decreased contribution to foreign exchange earnings in producing countries in the early 2000s. Although prices have improved over the past few years, economies that are dependent on traditional agricultural exports such as coffee need strategies to ensure stability in export earnings. One of the possible venues for increased agri-cultural export value is through exports to niche markets, such as coffee that is certified against one or more sustainability certifications (e.g. Fair Trade, Utz Certified, Organic, and Rainforest Alliance). For this reason, a survey was conducted with key actors (producers, processors, and exporters) in the Tanzanian coffee sector to assess compliance to the Utz standard – the fastest growing sus-tainability standard in the coffee sector. This paper reviews the key trends in relation to sustain-ability standards in coffee, a profile of (and the main challenges faced by) producers that comply with the Utz standard in Tanzania, and the perceptions of those producers who have not yet attempted certification. It provides a first, qualitative, reading of the survey findings, which will be followed up by a more rigorous quantitative assessment of costs and benefits. The findings provided here show that so far only large-scale coffee producers have managed to meet the costs of compliance with the Utz standard in Tanzania; they also show that the rate of growth of Utz-certified coffee sales from Tanzania is quite low, even when compared with neighbouring Uganda and Kenya. High costs of certification and the perceived inadequateness of price premiums on certified coffee were identified as the most limiting factors against compliance. Strategic awareness creation and support services on coffee standards are required among all actors in the coffee sector in Tanzania to meet current consumer demands on social and environ-mental concerns. Therefore, the coffee sector regulatory system should provide an institutional guide on coffee standards. It should also stimulate discussion among smallholder organizations, such as farmer groups and primary cooperative societies, on whether Utz certification should be attempted. Continued research on sustainability standards is also needed to inform actors in the sector on critical emerging issues that affect demand, supply, and prices of coffee.
Institutional capacity for standards conformity assessment: a case study on spices in Tanzania
(Copenhagen 2008 Danish Institute for International Studies, DIIS, 2008) Akyoo, A.; Lazaro, E.
Local capacity for standards conformity assessment is an important component in accessing export markets. In theory, it will lead to lowered compliance costs on the part of local exporters. Moreover, it may provide local exporters with the ability to contest unfavourable foreign test results and thus avoid unnecessary losses. This is important in cases where product contamin-ation occurs outside their borders. This is however possible only where relevant local institutions are accredited and adequately capitalized in terms of laboratory facilities, testing equipment, and certification services. Tanzania spices have four important market destinations – the domestic market, regional markets in Africa, the Asian market, and the EU market. The national standards that were formulated during late 1970s and 1980s address cleanliness and quality standards, and specify microbiological limits for various micro-organisms in spices. These standards are not observed in the local market due to lack of consumer demand for them and the absence of a deliberate industry drive to en-force them. This position weakens the possibility of using conformity to local standards as a step-ping stone to international conformity. Regional markets in Africa and Asian export markets are absorbing spice imports regardless of their quality so issues of conformity assessment in these markets are not important. EU market standards are concerned with food safety. In addition, organically-traded exports must be certified as such. For food safety the main tests demanded are for hazards like aflatoxins, pesticide residues, prohibited chemical dyes, heavy metals, as well as for Salmonella. Conformity assessment for these parameters entails investments in high performance liquid chromatograph, gas chromatograph, and atomic absorption spectrophotometer equipment, as well as other state-of –the-art laboratory facilities. Local conformity assessment in relation to these standards is deficient in many ways. Different approaches are recommended to address this situation. Meeting challenges of international accreditation, harnessing scattered efforts for conformity assessment capacity through improved coordination of existing laboratories, and formulation of a national food safety policy are among the recommendations suggested.

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