College of Economics and Business Studies

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Malnutrition and desease
(Freedom from Hunger Campaign, 1963) WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATIO
The first half of the twentieth century has witnessed three major revolutions. The political revolution has given self-government to nearly a third of the world's population and has brought their aspirations for a better life to the forefront of world attention. The revolution in communications has broken down the barriers of distance and language, and the dynamism of ideas can no longer be contained within the limits dictated by social privilege or political considerations. The demographic revolution has imparted to the challenge of poverty and want a new dimension.
Agricultural marketing and economic development: a brazilian case study
(1965) Smith, Gordon Whitford
This is a study of agricultural marketing and economic develop ment in a rapidly industrializing and urbanizing low income region, the Center-South of Brazil. It analyzes the trends in structure and effi- ciency of the marketing systems through wholesale of Brazil's two most important domestically produced staple food goods, rice and beans. The results of this study cast serious doubt on the hypothesis widely acepted among Brazilian economists that agricultural marketing, by increasing in gross margins considerably in the period since 1950, has retarded the growth of food production, and thus has strongly contri buted to an apparent real rise in food prices in urban areas in the late 19S0's and early 1960's. Both qualitative and quantitative evi- dence indicates that for rice and beans increases in marketing effi- ciency have been substantial and that farmers today (1965) receive a significantly large proportion of the whole sale price than 15 years earlier. Trends in Marketing have thus contributed to non-inflationary growth by increasing fans price incentives without a corresponding rise in urban food prices.
Local taxation in Uganda, Kenya, and Zambia
(University of Illinois, 1975) Scovill, Mary Edith
This study examines the existing local government tax structures The taxes are then evaluated with respect in Uganda, Kenya, and Zambia. to their effectiveness in furthering central government development goals, and recommendations are offered for achieving more optimal tax structures. Some attention is given to the role of autonomous local governmental units in each nation's political and economic structure. Few studies have been conducted of local government taxation in African countries, yet activities of local governments can greatly affect a country's development process. Studying three countries rather than one allows for greater comparison of various taxes and methods, and by this approach, it is hoped each country can draw on the experiences of the other two in determining the efficacy of various tax structures. The major portion of this dissertation is concerned with describing and evaluating the taxes currently employed by local governments in the three countries. Historically, the major revenue source for local governments has been the graduated personal tax, a unique type of income tax levied in many African countries. most local units in Uganda. It is still the major tax for Other taxes examined are assessment rates (property taxes), cesses, licences, and school fees. Taxes are evaluated on the basis of revenue potential, progressivity, effect on resource allocation, and costs of collection. The effect of taxation on growth of GDP is discussed only superficially; growth of GDP is a major development aim of the three countries, but it is affected primarily by central rather than local government taxation. Since each of the countries is concerned with replacing expatriates with nationals in both industry and government, a tax structure that can be administered by citizens is desirable. Information for this paper was obtained from governmental records and publications and interviews with central and local government officials in each country. Certain taxes were found to be more effective than others in meeting each country's aims. cesses were found to be an undesirable tax. In general, Of major requirement is the necessity of designing tax structures to meet the specific needs of each individual country, rather than simply incorporating features from the tax structures of developed countries or other LDCs.
Government financing of the development of small farm agriculture in the Center-South Province of Cameroon
(University of Illinois, 1978) Kamajou, Francois
The development of small farm agriculture has become an increasingly important issue for the economic development of the less developed coun- tries. Economists and the agricultural economists in particular have been trying to understand the complex environment of the small farmer. This understanding is of critical importance as it must precede any economic development program in which the small farmer will play an important role. The development of small farm agriculture is of special concern to Cameroon for two main reasons: (a) Cameroon economy is largely agricultural, and (b) nearly all farms are small farms. development of these small farms. Numerous factors constrain the Some of those factors include: inadequate technology and markets, unavailability of purchased farm inputs, and under developed physical infrastructure. It is plausible to assume that all these factors carry equal weight in furthering the solution to the small farmers’ numerous problems. This study assumes that all other constraints on the development of the small farm are removed in order to focus sharply on one of them, namely, the financial environment of the small farmer. Constrained capital has been shown to limit farmers’ use of purchase inputs, and by extension limits their output and income. In order to reduce the effects of this capital constraint on farmers’ production, the government intervenes in the supply of off-farm inputs. This service is supplied at minimal fees in spite of the very high returns the farmers enjoy. The loans are disbursed in kind in order to assure their use for a specific purpose (increase in the agri cultural output). An economic evaluation of such a credit program, "Operation Ceinture Verte," in the Center-South province of Cameroon, reveals very high returns for the whole economy. A financial evaluation of the same program reveals even higher returns for the participating farmers, but the project agency incurs considerable financial losses. In addition to the cost-benefit- analysis used to determine the three returns enumerated above, a linear programming model is used to determine the effects of, (a) interest rate, (b) size of loans, (c) restrictions on the use of loan proceeds, and (d) the liquidity management needs of the producers, on the farm organiza- tion. The analysis leads to the following major followings. 1. The small farmer is not as sensitive on the level of interest rate as the agricultural credit policy makers believe he is. In other words, a substantial increase in the interest rate he is charged does not affect his production organization. Indeed, should an interest be charged that is high enough to make the credit program more secure, the farmer may be led to ascribe greater permanence to the program. would likely follow: One consequence he would then consider program credit in reserve to be valuable to him and thus be a substitute for cash in meeting his liquidity requirements. The liquidity needs of the smaller farmer are real needs as shown by the large amount of cash he holds in reserve in order to counter various contingencies. A more permanent source of cash leads him to commit more of his reserved cash to his production process. 2. The size of the loans the small farmer obtains is more power ful in affecting farm organization than the interest rate he has to pay. This particular finding reinforces the point that limited capital supply is more limiting on the growth of the small farmer’s income than is the cost of capital, provided of course that these costs are kept within "reasonable" limits. 3. The relaxation on the use of government loan proceeds does not have a negative effect on farm output, as often believed by the policy makers. The study shows a considerable increase in the farmer’s net cash flow when loans are disbursed in cash. This restriction implicitly assumes that the small farmer’s household expenses can be clearly distinguished from his production or investment expenses; but this assumption does not reflect the well known interrelationship between the small farmer’s consump tion and his production expenses. 4. Though not substantiated by any empirical evidence, it is logi cally demonstrated that the policy of subsidized rate of interest worsens the income distribution. It is extremely important to emphasize that the findings above are derived from an optimal farm organization and should not be expected to be found in any particular farm. They are derived under the various and rather strict assumptions of the mathematical model which was used. Finally, the implementation of any policy suggestion derived from the findings is to be attempted in an integral process, taking into consideration all other limiting factors.
An economic analysis of the small-scale coffee-banana holdings in Moshi Rural. District, Tanzania.
(University of Nairobi, 1979-11) Msechu Adam R. M.
This study was undertaken with the major objectives of assessing resource availability and resource use by small-scale farmers in Moshi rural district of lanzania, with the view to identifying the critical constraints leading to low farm incomes in the area. In this respect, an attempt was made to find out whether the available resources could be re-allocated between- alternative uses in order to maximize total farm gross margins. A sample of 46 farms were surveyed from four villages in the district. The data were summarized and agregated to form a representative farm model for the area The empirical analysis of the input-output data included gross margin calculations of the important farm enterprises, and linear programming analysis, under the existing and improved technologies. The results of the survey showed that land was the most scarce resource. Farmers were also lacking important inputs and tools for most of their crop and livestock activities. The results of the fidndings in the empirical analysis, as well as experience, indicates that under the existing technology, farmers in the district were efficiently utilizing the available farm resources and that there was little potential for increasing farm incomes through re-organization of the current farms set—up. However, under mixed and improved technology farmers could greatly improve their farm incomes through greater intensity in use, improved methods of production, and raising productivity per unit area or animal. Under all the improved and mixed technology optimal farm plans, excess labour supply was revealed to be available in most months of the year on the farms. It was therefore, concluded and recommended that government in conjunction with other agricultural development institutions should strive to improve the quality and quantity of the extension staff. These institutions should also review the present heavy export-tax on coffee in order to make the crop more profitable to farmers. Research priority should be given to investigations on the coffee-banana inter-relationships as practiced by the small-scale farmers in the district. If farmers were to adopt the mixed and improved technologies optimal farm plans, the findings of the empirical analysis indicates that such optimal plans would generate excess labour supply on the small-holder farms which implicitly could profitably be employed through establishment of off—farm activities such as small scale indust ./es in the villages.
A parking systems analysis of factors that affect area and induction of cotton: A case study in Shinyanga regeon, Tanzania
(1980) Kajumulo, D .A .R
This study describes factors that affect area and production of cotton as part of the overall farming system for smallholders in Shinyanga Region, Tanzania .It involve a description of the characteristics of the existing farming systems and assessment of the production efficiency of the cotton producer.Based on farmer’s resources, priorities and production decision, plans to improve cotton production are studied simultaneously with the other crops in the systems and xdesi 'able improvements as suggested./Primary data were collected from 50 randomly-selected farmers in the area for the 1976/77 and 1577/78 crop seasons. Direct programme planning was used to determine optimum resource allocation.Relations between specified variables were tested by means of Chi-square and correlation analyses.Two major types of farming systems were identified, namely (1) Larger farms with livestock which wore characterized by having more land in crops, slightly bigger families, use of ox-ploughs for land preparation, and much higher per capita income (Sh 710). These farms produced about twice the food they actually required for subsistence, and sold the surplus for cash, but had serious labour problems.(2) Smaller farms without livestock, characterized by less land in crops and use of hand hoes for land preparation.They produced 14 percent less protein and 4 percent less calories than required for subsistence based on PAO norms and had a very low per capita income (Sh 170).They made up over half of the farms.Eased on these two types of farms, the study has developed alternative feasible farming systems typical to the area which satisfy family food needs throughout the year and increase family incomes based on a more reasonable work schedule for each type and utilizing family labour only.They arc developed on the following assumptions! (1) Yields per ha of the common food items equal to 80 percent of those believed to be normal for the area so that the determined area for subsistence meets full family food needs in most years. (2) Family labour remaining after meeting subsistence requirements is used as required for optimum cash-crop combinations, (j) Net family incomes are calculated based on 1977/78 crop-year prices and 80 percent of yields as found for EIDHP.The crop which gives the highest net cash return per limiting-month man-day is considered since family labour in peak months is the limiting factor to increased production.For smaller farms without livestock, a cash crop combination of 0.8 ha of sorghum/groundnuts and 0.8 ha of late-planted cotton is suggested.This would give these farms a total net family income of Sh 1,590 or a per capita income of Sh 240, which is about one-third higher than present incomes.However, by hiring ox-ploughing services for lend preparation while school holidays for children staying at home were made to coincide with the critical work peak of weeding,farmers could improve their farming system by growing 1.9 ha of □orghuE/groundnuts and 0.8 ha of late-planted cotton.This system would triple their net family income to Sh 3,120 or a per capita income of Sh 470.For larger farms with livestock, the optimum cash crop combination includes 3.1 ha of sorghum/groundnuts intercrop, 0.8 ha of late-planted cotton, and 0.6 ha of paddy, from which these farms likely would realize a total net family income of Sh 5,630 or a per capita income of Sh 790.This is about 10 percent higher than present,excluding returns from livestock. It is concluded therefore that if the aim is to increase farmer’s income, the crop which gives the highest net cash return per limiting-month man-day after meeting subsistence requirements,namely sorghum/groundnuts intercrop, should be encouraged.From the Government point of view, (a) school holiday schedules for children staying at home should be made to coincide with the critical work peak of weeding, and (b) an increase by 35 percent over prices used in the systems analyses for cotton, while keeping those of other crops and inputs unchanged, would make cotton more profitable and increase the cash benefit/cost ratio to 3:1 to warrant the risk and costs of using fertilizers and insecticides.If producer prices of other crops and inputs increase simultaneously with -those of cotton, farmers will always be tempted to grow the most profitable crop relative to cotton. Research on cotton improvement should be considered not only for specified cotton operations but in relation to all crops of thesystems, given the resources on typical individual farm units.
A parking systems analysis of factors that affect area and induction of cotton: A case study in Shinyanga regeon, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 1980) Kajumulo, D .A .R
This study describes factors that affect area and production of cotton as part of the overall farming system for smallholders in Shinyanga Region, Tanzania.It involves as description of the characteristics of the existing farming systems and assessment of the production efficiency of the cotton producer. Based on farmer’s resources, priorities and production decision, plans to improve cotton production are studied simultaneously with the other crops in the systems and desirable improvements are suggested./ Primary data were collected from 50 randomly-selected farmers in the area for the 1976/77 and 1577/78 crop seasons.Direct programme planning was used to determine optimum resource allocation.Relations between specified variables were tested by means of Chi-square and correlation analyses. Two major types of farming systems were identified, namely (1) Larger farms with livestock which wore characterized by having more land in crops, slightly bigger families, use of ox-ploughs for land preparation, and much higher per capita income (Sh 710).These farms produced about twice the food they actually required for subsistence, and sold the surplus for cash, but had serious labour problems.(2) Smaller farms without livestock, characterized by less land in crops and use of hand hoes for land preparation.They produced 14 percent less protein and 4 percent less calories than required for subsistence based on PAO norms and had a very low per capita income (Sh 170).They made up over half of the farms. Based on these two types of farms, the study has developed feasible farming systems typical to the area which satisfy family food needs throughout the year and increase family incomes based on a more reasonable work schedule for each type and utilizing family labour only.They arc developed on the following assumptions!(1)Yields per ha of the common food items equal to 80 percent of those believed to be normal for the area so that the determined area for subsistence meets full family food needs in most years.(2) Family labour remaining after meeting subsistence requirements is used as required for optimum cash-crop combinations, (j) Net family incomes are calculated based on 1977/78 crop-year prices and 80 percent of yields as found for EIDHP. The crop which gives the highest net cash return per limiting-month man-day is considered since family labour in peak months is the limiting factor to increased production. For smaller farms without livestock, a cash crop combination of 0.8 ha of sorghum/groundnuts and 0.8 ha of late-planted cotton is suggested. This would give these farms a total net family income of Sh 1,590 or a per capita income of Sh 240, which is about one-third higher than present incomes. However, by hiring ox-ploughing services for lend preparation while school holidays for children staying at home were made to coincide with the critical work peak of weeding, fanners could improve their farming system by growing 1.9 ha of sorghum/groundnuts and 0.8 ha of late-planted cotton.This system would triple their net family income to Sh 3,120 or a per capita income of Sh 470. For larger farms with livestock, the optimum cash crop combination includes 3.1 ha of sorghum/groundnuts intercrop, 0.8 ha of late- planted cotton, and 0.6 ha of paddy, from which these farms likely would realize a total net family income of Sh 5,630 or a per capita income of Sh 790. This is about 10 percent higher than present, excluding returns from livestock. It is concluded therefore that if the aim is to increase farmer’s income, the crop which gives the highest net cash return per limiting month man-day after meeting subsistence requirements, namely sorghum/groundnuts intercrop, should be encouraged. From the Government point of view, (a) school holiday schedules for children staying at home should be made to coincide with the critical work peak of weeding, and (b) an increase by 35 percent over prices used in the systems analyses for cotton, while keeping those of other crops and inputs unchanged, would make cotton more profitable and increase the cash benefit/cost ratio to 3:1 to warrant the risk and costs of using fertilizers and insecticides. If producer prices of other crops and inputs increase simultaneously with -those of cotton, farmers will always be tempted to grow the most profitable crop relative to cotton. Research on cotton improvement should be considered not only for specified cotton operations but in relation to all crops of the systems, given the resources on typical individual farm units.
Socio-economic factors affecting small-holder tea production ;A case study of the Korogwe tea sub scheme,Tanga region
(SOKOINE UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE., 1980) LUPATU M. A
Tills thesis presents a case study of the Llorogwc tea sub-scheme in Tanga Region.It e:s?mines socio-economic factors affecting small holder tea production under the 1979 farming system. Fifty tea-growers were picked from a sampling frame covering1,500 smallholders using a stratified random sampling appro-.ch based on plot size of tea.The farmers were interviewed in August-October, Questionnaires used and method of data analysis are described.1979. An average farm family load 9 people eating at home and cultivated on average 2.3 ha, of which 42 percent was for cash and the balance was for food crops. Computed food production by a typical farm family was on average below family annual minimum requirements by 6percent of calories and 37 percent of protein in 1979.If families are to be self-sufficient, food production must be increased. On average, a farm family received Shs. 7,300 from crop sales in 1979, of which 42 percent vias from tea and 32 percent from cardamom.Effects of the following factors on tea production were studied: (l) Distance from tea farms to green-leaf buying centres.Daily pluckings were limited by the number of possible round-trips per day during buying hours. (2) Producer prices.Increased prices motivated farmers to pluck more in the short-run but transport to markets for the increase frequently was not available. (>)fertilizer distribution, which frequently was not satisfac tory. (4) As many tea bushes are immature, age in years had a statis- tically significant effect on yield of tea pex* ha. (5) Use of desirable husbandly practices and a proper plucking rate tended to increase yield per ha but an increase in tea area, fter allowing for other factors in the regression analysis, tended to reduce tea yield per ha.In an analysis of use of desirable husbandry practices, number of extension contacts was the most important single affecting variable. A third analysis indicated that area in cardamom was the most important single variable affec-ting total income per farm.Tea yield per ha, age of tea bushes in years and coffee area were also influencing..Two basic analyses run by linear programming indicate that: In plan 1, where each fanner was required to maintain the government 0.60 ha tea quota, the optimum plan was 17 percent more profitable than the 1979 farming system.Crops included were 1.1 ha of cardamom, the required 0.6 ha of tea, and two crops for subsistence, namely 0.4 lia of bananas and 0o6 ha of beans. Plan 2 allowed farmers to respond to direct economic influences.This was 13 percent more profitable than plan 1, with the same food crops and only cardamom (1.7 ha) included as a cash crop.both plans 1 and 2 based on combinations of low and high producer prices for tea, cardamom and coffee , respectively, is also described. Under all of the plans considered, available family labour is underutilized in most months. Thus, development of other sec tors oi* the economy to use this surplus labour v.nuld be highly desirable. The future development of cardamom depends largely on a limited external market dominated by India, the largest producer.requirement tint farmers maintain 0.60 ha of tea The looks rational as tea provides regular employment and income to farmers.Based on this analysis, either tea prices should be increased or cardamom prices reduced (or both) if tea is to be an economically- viable crop. Coffee was not profitable under the conditions speci-fied.Other features of the analysis indicate tint the 24 million kg target of made tea by 1981 in Tanzania looks unrealistic. Under the ejd-sting situations, tliis target may be reached by 1935 when tea bushes planted by 1976 become mature.viii
Potential for continued livestock production in the face of population pressure in Ukwala and Hondo divisions, Siaya district, Kenya
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 1980) Ouma Awange Luke
The thesis is based on a sample survey of 50 farmers conducted in Siaya District, Kenya, to assess the livestock position of small farmers which has been adversely affected by high population pressure in the District. , The study begins by assessing generally the role of livestock as an agricultural enterprise and the position of livestock in Africa and Kenya. Then the position of livestock .in Siaya District is examined in detail in accordance with the objec tives of the study. As an agricultural enterprise, livestock is a signifi- cant contributor to gross domestic product in terms of in come from internal and external markets. It is also a source of food, manure, and ox-power in places where intermediate technology is recommended. Reasons for poor performance of the cattle industry in Africa include diseases, starvation due to-drought and poor grazing management, etc. Reasons for the lack of full development of the livestock industry in Kenya include inadequacy of certain basic input supplies and services and widely scattered research developmentefforts Suggested solutions to the Kenya live- stock problems include establishment of pasture leys, culti vation of fodder crops, and fencing to reduce communal graz- ing. stall scale farcers. Eigh population pressure building up in the District has caused competition for scarce arable land between cattle and crops. The competition is eliminating cattie, and as such, mixed farming and its numerous bene- fits. This study has two objectives: (1) to examine whether to integrate the livestock enterprise more closely with a cropping system or accept the trend and ensure an efficient use of arable land without a livestock compo- nent. If (1) indicates a place for livestock, the (2) examines whether emphasis should be placed on milk produc tion, draught animals, er a combination of both, thus essentially involving a choice between grade milk animals and Zebu animals, since only Zebu cattle are used for ox-cultivation. The analysis uses gross margins to determine three alternative feasible farming systems, namely: (1) two dairy cows and crops; (2) one dairy cow, a team of two oxen and crops; (3) crops alone (no livestock). The dairy enterprise is based on a grade milk animal. Alternatives (1) and (2) are based on family labour only, but alter- native (3) is based on (a) family labour only and (b) family labour plus a maximum of one casual labourer as required. Conclusions and recommendations of the study are: (1) if family labour only is employed, livestock should be kept regardless of whether major emphasis is on dairy- ing (2 cows) or oxen (1 pair + 1 cow mainly for subsis- tence), because cash income is about the same with 2 iii grade cows or with one grade cow and a pair of oxen, both with crops, and this is all that can be kent on a typical farm under a rotational grass ley system if food needs are met totally from the farm. (2) if a moderate amount of casual labour is hired (total of 61 man-days .per year), then it would be equally profitable to grow crops alone with in a framework of uncertainty about how best to value milk to family, provided continuous cropping is compatible with Siaya soils.
Economic analysis of acreage supply response under risk: the case of selected crops in Oklahoma
(Oklahoma State University, 1981-12) Mlay, Gilead Isaac
Modifications of small-farmer credit In the maisan 77 program of the Philippines
(1983) Octavio, Generoso G.
This study was conducted to determine possible reforms that may improve the Maisan 77 credit program. Specifically, it aimed to pinpoint suggestions that will reduce the net costs of lending and improve the financial and economic well-being of farmer-borrowers. To accomplish these objectives, survey data were used to specify and validate a liquidity-specified linear programming (LS-LP) model. Simulations of the model were made with variations in: (1) interest rate, (2) credit limit, and (3) mode of loan disbursement. 11 The effects of a break-even" rate of interest was given special focus since this is the rate of interest at which the credit program recovers its lending costs. The results of the simulations showed that: (1) The welfare losses of the farmer due to increases in interest rates can be offset by coordinated increases in the size of loan, thus, making the credit limit as more important to the farmer’s well-being than the rate of interest he has to pay. (2) Disbursement of program loans in cash only resulted in improved financial structure and liquidity reservations for the farmer. function, net cash flow and cash available increased. decreased while total reserved credit increased. The objective Reserved cash These indicate that credit reservation tends to substitute for cash, allowing the farmer to commit more of his cash to production. A likely consequence is the possible extended outreach of the program to small farmers who have not yet been served with loans. Cash only disbursement of loan relaxes the restriction on its use. more versatile loan like moneylender funds will be valued highly. Thus, Ahigher valuation of cash program loan may lead the borrower to preserve such loan—and to protect it by paying back his/her debt. (3) The effect of break-even interest rate just by itself, is a general reduction in the farmer’s welfare, though the lender recovers its lending costs. However, when coupled with increasing credit limit and an all cash disbursement of loan, results showed improvement in the well-being and liquidity position of the farmer as well. Using simple calculations, it was shown that the public sector’s net cost of lending can be reduced by simultaneous increases in interest rate and credit limit.
The allocation of resources in the small farm household of dumila, Magole villages and the Kilosa Tanzania: a nutrition based Nonmechanized Mkundi and District, approach.
(University of Illinois, 1984) Gillard-Byers, Thomas Edward
Many people and a couple of organizations have contribu-ted to the successful completion of this research.these individuals contributed time, The African Studies Program and experience, Many of and patience. The Office of International Agriculture provided funds and linkages to those areas which I find most interesting. I want to thank my wife, Nancy, for her continual sup port as we both worked toward this goal. The long days and sleepless nights were always made shorter by her companion- To my son, Nicholas, ship. whom I foolishly told "Ask me if I finished my dissertation today," which he did month in and month out, Without I want to say, "You made it all worthwhile." the continuous support of my family I would have certainly faltered. My sincerest thanks go to Dr. Folke Dovring who guided my work and was available at a moment's notice, for whatever problem I encountered. His suggestions and encouragement led to the completion of this work, of which I am proud. Dr. Dovring's scholarship and humanism will not be forgotten. I also want to thank the other members of my committee, Professors Sam Johnson, Rashid, Charles Stewart, Jean Due and Salim for their constructive suggestions. Dr. Johnson was instrumental in helping with the modelling of the villagesand focused my concentration on issues which had been over-iv looked. Dr. Stewart offered his time and his knowledge of the historical background of Africa. The support which I received from Dr. Stewart and the African Studies Program was continuous and welcomed. Dr. Due provided the source of in formation which proved to be the basis of the dissertation. Funding of this research was almost wholly undertaken by Dr. Due. The time which she spent reviewing this work has re-suited in a better product. Rashid, Thanks are extended to Dr. Department of Economics, to a much clearer manu script. Salim whose suggestions have led Dr. Rashid was willing to put aside important work to consult with me . Others who have helped me complete this dissertation with or without their knowledge are Dr. Earl Ke 1logg, Dr. Eldon Johnson, Dr. John Santas and a number of my peers soon to be doctors, man. Jane Gleason, Timothy Kohnen and Vickie Sig- They have all made it a little bit Special thanks mus t go to Mrs. Constance Hoffmann for the tremendous job she has done typing this manuscript. Last but not least, I want to thank the members of the Department of Agricultural Economics, both secretaries and faculty, their open door policy. for their open door policy.
An analysis of consumption patterns of major food items in Morogoro district
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 1984) Mrema, May Joyce Nyakasero
Response studies relating changes in food consumption patterns to relative changes in income and prices, and as influenced by sociodemographic factors are lacking in Tanzania. Food demand projections and the evaluation of the impact of alternative food policies on consumers and producers1 welfare, and the cost for complementing them require parameter estimates based on food demand studies. The study examines food consumption patterns of major food items, in Morogoro district for the year 1983. The influence of income, sociodemographic factors and government policies on food consumption patterns are considered. Budget shares, income elasticities, and marginal propensities to consume by income groups are determined. In addition to the analyses based on individual food items, an investigation based on aggregated classes is also conducted the aggregation being based on the nutritional value of the food items. The nutritional classes considered are (i) Energy (maize, rice, sorghum, wheat flour, cassava, bananas and sugar), (ii) Proteins (Milk, meat, beans and fish), (iii) Vegetables and (iv) Fats. The data was gathered from both primary sources (through a questionnaire administered to a sample of 120 households randomly selected from both the urban and rural areas), and secondary sources (Government reports, Population Census). regression and tabula analyses. The data was analyzed by The model used in the regression analysis evolved from the static theory of consumer behaviour. For per capita expenditure, on food income and education level, nature of employment and residential area are the factors considered. Four functional forms (i.e. linear, quadratic, semilog and double log) were identified for the analysis. The linear form was selected for subsequent analysis as most of its coefficients conformed to a priori expectation, it had the highest R , and relatively lower standard errors than the other functional forms. The study has established that lower income households have higher budget shares on food than the higher income households (84 per cent and 50 per cent respectively), whereas rural households and farmers have higher budget shares than urban households and non farmers (79 and 89 percent respectively, and 55 and 54 per cent respectively). This is because of lower incomes of the rural and farming households compared to the urban and non farming households. The lower income group spend a higher budget share on energy items (58 per cent), whereas the higher income groups spend a higher budget share on proteins (23 per cent). Households with 0-3 years of education spend 75 per cent of their incomes on food with 52 per cent being spent on energy items, whereas those with 15 - 25 years of education spend only 44 per cent on food and 20 per cent on protein. The study also shows that the total mean expenditure on food increases with an increase in the household size. Mean expenditure on food, increases with an increase in the age of head of household up to the age of 45 years and then declines thereafter. Qualitative analysis shows that the urban households prefer maize, rice, wheat flour, cassava and bananas,while the rural house holds prefer maize, rice, sorghum and cassava. Falling real income and cronic food shortages have resulted in below the required calorie and protein intake for all income strata, and has increased expenditure on cassava and bananas by the urban residents. Engel curve results indicate that per capita income was the only factor affecting per capita, total food expenditure significantly, it affected two food catagories (energy and protein) and three selected individual food items (maize, rice and meat) significantly. The level of education of the head of household affected significantly the vegetables category only, whereas area of residence was found to affect significantly the protein category (mainly meat) and sorghum. The nature of employment factor had no significant effect on the consumption expenditure of any of the food classes considered. Marginal propensities to consume (MPCs) and income elasticities decline with an increase in income level. The MPCs for the most preferred food items (maize, rice and meat) are higher than for the less preferred food items (sorghum, banana, and beans) Those MPCs for protein and energy food categories are higher than those for fats and vegetables. Income elasticities for maize, rice, meat and beans are generally higher than for sorghum and bananas, and those for energy and protein categories are higher than for vegetables and fats. This indicates that a one per cent increase in income will increase the expenditure on the more preferred food items by a higher percentage than the increase in the less preferred items. Maize., rice, meat and beans are luxury commodities for 20 per cent of the sampled households while meat is a luxury commodity for 80 per cent of the sampled households.
Structural change in the u.s. soybean and soybean products Markets:a systematic varying coefficient Simultaneous system approach
(1985) Rugambisa, Jeremiah Boniface Ishengoma
The soybean industry is an interesting area for investiga- It is extremely complex and has been changing rather t ion. dramatically over the last 10 to 15 years. There exists a high degree of interaction among the markets for soybeans, oil and soybean meal. soybean Recent shocks and changes in the world economic environment have impacted substantially on the industry altering the demand for its products and even changing the participants and their roles in the marketplace. Understanding the behavior of the soybean industry is important to market participants, alike. producers and consumers Changes in market structure can influence demand and supply conditions, price movements and can cause rather consid- erable changes in farmer income and the prices that consumers pay for related final products. Under these circumstances, the value of accurate forecasting of prices and quantities increases in importance. ters (e.g. Also, knowledge of changing structural parame elasticities) can be crucial to government decision makers in analyzing the effects of alternative farm policies. The general thrust of this thesis involves the econometric modeling of structural change in the U.S. products markets. soybean and soybean A quarterly econometric model is specifiedV within the framework of a systematic varying coefficients simultaneous system. Changing parameters will be identified and an examination of the forecasting performance of the model will be made.
Cash crop versus food crop production in Tanzania: An assessment of the major Post-colonial trends
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 1985) Odegaard,Knut
In the less developed countries CLDCs) a substantial share of the output produced in the agricultural sector is con sumed directly on the farm. This share is commonly termed subsistence consumption. The difference between total out put and subsistence consumption constitutes the marketed- from agriculture. In a country dominated by an agricultural sector, the growth of this surplus not only poses a constraint on the rate of structural transformation of the economy by being the main source of food supply for the non-agricultural population, but it is also the major source of investment funding, the size of which of course will also have a decisive bearing on the rate of economic growth and development that can be achieved. Some writers on economic development even argue that the presence of an agricultural surplus is a precondition for economic deve lopment .1 In this study we shall concentrate on identifying the factors that have governed the development of the size and the composition of the marketed surplus. In particular the composition of the marketed surplus in terms of cash crop? and food crops will be in focus. (Definitions of these two categories of crops follows shortly.) A main thesis of the study is that Tanzania should concentrate more on cash crop production than has been the case during the last fifteen years, i.e. that a change of policy in the suggested direc tion will have positive effects on trade, employment, in come and capital formation. In this introductory chapter we seek to provide a framework for the analysis. This will do by (1) giving a brief ac count of the nature of the constraint posed by the marketed surplus from agriculture on economic development, (2) pro viding some definitional terms that are of central im-2 portance for the study, and (3) giving a short presentation of Tanzania’s resources, farming structure and economic structure.
The design of an agricultural credit system for small farm families in Liberia
(University of Illinois, 1985-03) Sarlie Joe Yanquoi F.
Liberia, which became independent on July 24, 1347, is located on the West Coast of Africa bounded on the south by the Atlantic Ocean, north by Guinea, west by Sierra Leone, and east by the Ivory Coast. Liberia did not achieve any significant economic growth until the post World War II period. In order to accelerate this growth process, President W.V.S. Tubman launched the Open Door Policy Program to entice foreign investment and skilled man power for the development of iron ore mining, cocoa and rubber plantations and other vital industries. As a consequence of this program, the monetary sector of the Liberian economy grew quite rapidly between 1950 and the early 1970s. an estimated per capita income of $530.00 in 1982.1 Liberia had However, the pattern of growth which evolved from the iron ore, rubber and cocoa concessions left the vast majority of the population unaffected; for example, while the enclave sector produces a per capita GNP of $1,620, the large majority of the population which lives in the rural sector has a per capita income of about $160. 2 This rapid economic growth rate of the economy became relatively stagnant as a result of the falling prices of iron ore, cocoa, coffee and rubber prompted by international economic conditions of the 1970s. As a result of world price fluctuations of these major exports, which made government revenue uncertain and vulnerable, the government had to search for potential new sources of growth. Agriculture was identified as a potential source of growth that had not been adequately explored.
The financial infrastructure and agricultural development in Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 1988) Temu Andrew Ephraim
In any economy there is a sector which portrays the highest potential for the contribution to economic growth. In Tanzania, like in many non-oil producing African countries the agricultural sector is the most important. Development efforts in such an economy have to pay due weight to such a sector. This study looks on to the roles and contributions of a financial infrastructure to agricult ure development in Tanzania. The study has five chapters. Chapter 1 is an introductory one and gives the background of the economy and justifies the study. Chapter two establishes the basis of evaluation by reviewing and presenting the roles of the financial infrastructure. are evaluationary ones. Chapters three and four Whereas chapter three looks into the structure and set up of the financial system, the philosophical basis of establishment, objectives and roles of the financial instit utions, chapter four evaluates the achievements of this system in fulfiling four identified roles of a financial infrastructure; establishing a medium of exchange, mobilization of savings, issuing credit and acting as a tool of economic stabilization. There is evidence of a deliberate effort by the financial system to assist the agriculture sector. The philosophical basis of establishment of institutions, roles and provisions at the Central Bank portray the importance accorded to Agriculture. The weaknesses and low performance of financial institutions in assisting agriculture are attributed to the low level of financial widening and deepening - widening in terms of branch network and deepening in terms of serving more clients. Poverty, unwillingness and resistance by the rural populace are rejected as the reasons for failure in savings mobilization or use of credit. Stable developmental strategies are called upon for harmonious functioning of the financial system.
Evaluation of externally funded regional integrated development programmes (rideps) in Tanzania: case studies of Kigoma, Tanga and Iringa regions.
(School of Development Studies of the University of East Anglia, Norwich, 1988-06) Ngasongwa, Juma
The importance of regional integrated development programmes and projects (RIDEPs) as pub lie policy instruments of rural change in Tanzania cannot be over-emphasized. S i nee have played purposefully directed towards increasing agricultural production and improvement in the quality of regions in the country. Soon launching of programme in July 1972, the (PMO), the then newly created super ministry responsible f or all rural development ma 11ers, formula ted and adopted a RIDEP policy and strategy. One of the key elements of i n the preparation and implementation of regional integrated development plans. Although donor response i n the preparation and writing of the RIDEP plans was enormous, culminating in each region having plan ready (i . e. on the she If) by the late seventies, follow-up funding was realized f or only ten of the twenty of the Tanzanian regions. I n the later years, the rate of donor dropout became a serious problem by 1986 only three RIDEPs were still running with donor support. The present study is regional integrated deve1opment programmes and projects of three Tanga (West Germany) and a significant role a number of as public Interventions which have been the administrative decentralization regions in Tanzania Kigoma (World Bank), this policy was to encourage donor participation after its own Prime Minister's Office life of the rural people in an ex-post evaluation of externally funded so that the early seventies RIDEPs I r i nga (EEC)). A rev1ew of eva1uat i on methods i s undertaken to estab 1i sh the i r link with and re 1evance to the obj ec t i ves and hypotheses of the study. The chosen methods and i nd i ca tors of the s t udy are d i scussed and the i r appropr i a teness is demonstrated. The chosen methods are ’bef ore and af ter’ compar isons, ’with and wi thout’ compar i sons and surveys. These eva1ua t i on methods are c ons i dered more appropr i a t e to the c ircurnstances of ianzan i a than others such as cos t-benefi t ana 1ys i s, f i nanc i a 1 investment ana 1ys i s, p1ann i ng-programmi ng-budget i ng system, etc., wh i ch usua11y resort to computer i sed ana 1yses. G i ven resource const ra i nts (f unds, manpower wi th the appropriate skills and equipment), s i mp1e methods are t o be preferred to the more soph i st i cated ones, if the re 1i ab i1i t y of the cone 1 us ions is similar. Each regional integrated development programme or proj ec t i s d1scussed and eva1ua t ed. A deta i1ed exami nat i on of <1) the obj ec t i ves, <2) appropriateness of the planning methodology and (3) exten t of implementation of each RIDEP i s carr i ed out and analysed to determi ne the i r ach i evements and failures. The purpose of the evaluation activity i s to pinpoint the ach i evements and the reasons f or the non-ach i evements of the RIDEPs when compared wi th their stated object ives. Through the evaluat ion exerc i se strengths and weaknesses of the RIDEPs as instruments of rural change are ident i f ied and recommendat ions are advanced to improve the effectiveness of the on-going RIDEPs and, mos t i mportant1y, of RIDEPs as a methodology of rural development planning and implementation in Tanzania.
An evaluation of the role played by coffee marketing Institutions to coffee smallholders in Kilimanjaro region, 1970-1984
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 1990) Shuma Geoffrey Petro
Changing socio-political and economic circumstances and technological innovations necessitate institutional and conceptual adjustments to new conditions. Such changes which have occurred in Tanzania since Independence in 1961 have changed the country's crop marketing system. The purpose of this study has been to find out and narrate the causes, effects and salient features of the institutional changes of the Tanzania's crop marketing system in the period between 1970 and 1984. Coffee marketing institutions in Ki 1imanj aro Region are used as a case study. In this study two hypotheses were set and tested. First it was hypothesized that coffee marketing system under the Tanganyika Coffee Board (TCB)/ Kilimanjaro Native Cooperative Union (KNCU) was more efficient than under the Coffee Authority of Tanzania (CAT). To test this hypothesis secondary time series data on producer's price as percentage of f . o . b price, un i t marketing margin, unit marketing costs, potential final payment, unit administrative expenses, unit administrative expenses as percentage of unit marketing costs, current ratio and quantity of coffee sold were collected. Regression Analysis of these secondary data has shown that unit administrative and marketing costs were significantly lower during KNCU time than period. These factors enabled KNCU to * significantly higher producer's price as f.o.b price than could CAT. From these observations the during CAT pay farmers percentage of : (iii) hypothesis that coffee marketing system under TCB/KNCU was more efficient than under CAT cannot be rejected and it is cone1uded that TCB/KNCU was significantly more efficient than CAT when marketing farmers coffee. Secondly5 it was hypothesized that TCB/KNCU and affiliated cooperative societies were more concerned with the development of coffee farmers than the CAT. To test this hypothesis primary data on attitudes of farmers towards the crop marketing organization were collected by means of a questionnaire administered to fifty (50) randomly selected farmers. t and Chi-square tests were used to test the hypothesis. The corresponding parametric and non—parametric statistical inference proved that KNCU was significantly more efficient in providing managerial services when purchasing farmers coffee. The services included inspection, grading, weighing of crops and paying farmers. CAT was, however, significantly more efficient in the provision of inputs and extension services to farmers. Consequently it is recommended that in Tanzania agricultural crops shou1d be marketed by agricultural marketing cooperatives and marketing boards. The cooperative should be owned and controlled by the members on a democratic basis. The effectiveness of marketing boards can be improved by increasing the participation of farmers, processors, merchants and consumers in their decision making process.
Economic analysis of effects of government intervention on production,marketing and consumption of rice in Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 1992) Lemweli ,O O. N
In this affecting policies study, production, marketing and consumption of rice in Tanzania are reviewed. Distortionary and effects we 1 fare government of intervention are empirically estimated. Partial equiLibrium analysis involving Policy Analysis (PAM) and partial equilibrium model Ma tri x PAM Norn i naI (through Effective Resource Coefficient Protection Coefficient Protection (EPC) (NPC), Domestic and used to estimate distortionary is Cost. ( DRC) ) is used. The effects of government intervention in small and large scale rice production systems, while is used to estimate welfare partial equilibrium model effects of government intervention. Correction for overvaluation of currency is also carried out. Primary data from the survey village of Madaganya in Morogoro district and secondary data from Dakawa Rice Farm, Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development, and its institutions, Bank of Tanzania and Bureau of Statistics form the basis of analyses. The system is results indicate that inefficient and the official marketing incurs large financial losses which are not borne by the parastatals but directly by the producers general (through public prices) and subsidies to reduced through partly the by the marketing institutions and consumer prices. Net NPCs and EPCs for both production systems are less than one. From the net NPC and EPC values, small holder producers experience a net tax of 20% while that of large scale producers is between 63- 80% implying that taxation i s for a major disincentive greater rice output. Net DRC for both production system is less than one (ie. 0.15 each) indicating that rice production is efficient and socially profitable and in the absence of distortion, production would generate more than enough value added to remunerate factors of production at their opportunity cost. The economy incurs large welfare losses due to misallocation of resources. Producers incur large welfare losses (Tsh 6,578x10' .3 ’) while consumers incur large welfare gain (Tsh 17,283.27x10'). Government suffers losses of revenue (Tsh 12,377.15x10 3) and foreign exchange (Tsh 8769.76x103- as a result of distortion. The implication is that quantity of rice produced domestically declines while amount consumed locally increases. These results are based on partial equilibrium analysis which captures only partial effects. Distortions of the size discussed here would have a repercussion in other sectors of the economy as well. The general equilibrium analysis would have larger estimates than those given here. Some policies to improve marketing efficiency, to raise farm level prices and increase output are recommended.

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