Department of Forest Resources Assessment and Management

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Forest road planting and control by mathematical programming and time study analysis
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 1985) Abeli, W S
Planning and construction of forest roads have until very recently been geared towards establishment and tending of plantation forests. Now that most of the plantations are nearing maturity, it is essential to plan and construct proper roads for harvesting purposes. Hi is study was designed to develop a comprehensive methodology that can be used by forest managers in the planning and control of forest roads. Specifically, the objectives of the study were: - To evaluate the application of mathematical programming methods to the design of safe and minimum-cost forest roads - To test the feasibility of improving and controlling forest road construction by mathematical programming - To develop a comprehensive methodology for measuring and estimating production rates and costs associated with forest road construction. To be able to plan, execute and control work operations for this study, a representative 1.3 km access road was planned and constructed at the Training Forest of the Sokoine University of Agriculture between February 1981 and May 1984. A number of mathematical models and time study methods were tested and incorporated in this study in order to develop a comprehensive methodology aimed at improving plan ning, control and cost estimation procedures. Based on the results of this study, the following observatxons and conclusions are made;Planning and construction of forest roads have until very recently been geared towards establishment and tending of plantation forests. Now that most of the plantations are nearing maturity, it is essential to plan and construct proper roads for harvesting purposes. Hi is study was designed to develop a comprehensive methodology that can be used by forest managers in the planning and control of forest roads. Specifically, the objectives of the study were: - To evaluate the application of mathematical programming methods to the design of safe and minimum-cost forest roads - To test the feasibility of improving and controlling forest road construction by mathematical programming - To develop a comprehensive methodology for measuring and estimating production rates and costs associated with forest road construction. To be able to plan, execute and control work operations for this study, a representative 1.3 km access road was planned and constructed at the Training Forest of the Sokoine University of Agriculture between February 1981 and May 1984. A number of mathematical models and time study methods were tested and incorporated in this study in order to develop a comprehensive methodology aimed at improving plan ning, control and cost estimation procedures. Based on the results of this study, the following observatxons and conclusions are made;Planning and construction of forest roads have until very recently been geared towards establishment and tending of plantation forests. Now that most of the plantations are nearing maturity, it is essential to plan and construct proper roads for harvesting purposes. Hi is study was designed to develop a comprehensive methodology that can be used by forest managers in the planning and control of forest roads. Specifically, the objectives of the study were: - To evaluate the application of mathematical programming methods to the design of safe and minimum-cost forest roads - To test the feasibility of improving and controlling forest road construction by mathematical programming - To develop a comprehensive methodology for measuring and estimating production rates and costs associated with forest road construction. To be able to plan, execute and control work operations for this study, a representative 1.3 km access road was planned and constructed at the Training Forest of the Sokoine University of Agriculture between February 1981 and May 1984. A number of mathematical models and time study methods were tested and incorporated in this study in order to develop a comprehensive methodology aimed at improving plan ning, control and cost estimation procedures. Based on the results of this study, the following observatxons and conclusions are made;(a) With some modifications (in order to fit them to local conditions), the standard engineering procedures used for road design, layout and culvert size determination proved to be fully satisfactory for use in Tanzania. (b) Detailed time and work analyses conducted during the study resulted in the establishment of production rates and costs of forest road construction in Tanzania. (c) Microcomputer-based linear programming and a transportation tableau method were shown to be equivalent in determining optimal allocation of earthwork during forest road planning. Because it can be done by hand without recourse to a micro computer, however the transportation tableau method is the one likely to be favoured and adopted by most forest projects in Tanzania. (d) Before the actual road construction starts, the distance between net cut and net fill areas can be used as a surrogate for earthwork cost to determine the optimal road design. The study found that the design alternative selected on the basis of minimum earth moving distance was also the one that mini mized earthwork cost. (e) A distance of 30 m between instrument stations along the road appears to provide better accuracy for road layout and design than using either intervals of 60 m or utilizing "terrain breaks" to define instrument stations. In this study, both of these latter interval lengths provided data (a) With some modifications (in order to fit them to local conditions), the standard engineering procedures used for road design, layout and culvert size determination proved to be fully satisfactory for use in Tanzania. (b) Detailed time and work analyses conducted during the study resulted in the establishment of production rates and costs of forest road construction in Tanzania. (c) Microcomputer-based linear programming and a transportation tableau method were shown to be equivalent in determining optimal allocation of earthwork during forest road planning. Because it can be done by hand without recourse to a micro computer, however the transportation tableau method is the one likely to be favoured and adopted by most forest projects in Tanzania. (d) Before the actual road construction starts, the distance between net cut and net fill areas can be used as a surrogate for earthwork cost to determine the optimal road design. The study found that the design alternative selected on the basis of minimum earth moving distance was also the one that mini mized earthwork cost. (e) A distance of 30 m between instrument stations along the road appears to provide better accuracy for road layout and design than using either intervals of 60 m or utilizing "terrain breaks" to define instrument stations. In this study, both of these latter interval lengths provided data which tended to u. i erestimate actual road construction cost by about 30 Z. (f) The influence of road grade and alignment on log-truck haul ing speed can satisfactorily be determined through the prin ciples of engineering mechanics. For instance, when deter mining the hauling speed over a given road with a good number of sharp curves, time to decelerate into and accelerate out of the curve, the designed curve speed and the maximum safe speed have to be considered. (g) Of three road grade alternatives analysed in this study (6 Z, 8 Z and 10 Z), the 8 Z maximum grade recommended by the Forest Division was found to be the grade that minimized the total of earthwork and hauling costs. (h) The use of the critical path method during culvert installa tion resulted in the reduction of total installation time by about 28 Z. (i) Road construction is an expensive undertaking, but costs can be reduced to about 1/3 to 1/2 of those estimated by road contractors if proper applied. planning and control procedures are The construction cost of this research road was found to be shs 220 587/km, with earthwork and gravelling operations taking 33 Z and 30 Z of the total construction costs respectively, while road alignment/clearing and culvert installation took 24 Z and 13 Z respectively.In addition to these conclusions, the methodological procedures described in detail in this thesis provide a foundation on which forest managers can base decisions related to the planning and cons truction of forest roads.
Effect of spacing on performance of teak at Longuza, Tanga, Tanzania
(Journal of Tropical Forest Science, 1994) Sibomana, G.; Makonda, F. B. S.; Malimbwi, R. E; Chamshama, S. A. O.; Iddi, S.
The performance of teak ( Tectona grandis ) planted at four square spacings ( 1 .5, 2.0, 2.5 and 3.0 m) at Longuza, Tanga, in Tanzania was assessed. The variables studied were diameter at breast height (dbh) , total height and height to the first live branch, survival, number of branches, basal area and volume production at ages 1, 3, 7 and 9 y, and basic density and some strength properties at the age of 1 4 y. Results showed that dbh, number of branches, total height, basal area, basic density and some strength properties were significantly affected by spacing (p = 0.05). The diameter at breast height and number of branches increased with increasing spacing, while basal area decreased. All other variables were not significantly affected by spacing. A spacing of 3.0 m resulted in large diameter trees and later thinnings, with less total volume per hectare. The current spacing of 2 m resulted in higher volume per hectare of small sized trees which could be improved by thinning. It is recommended to continue with this spacing and the current thinning schedule until information on the economic implications of alternative regimes is available.
Indigenous management systems as a basis for community forestry in Tanzania: A case study of Dodoma urban and Lushoto disticts
(Wageningen, 1994) Kajembe, George C.
This report presents an analysis of the nature of both indigenous and professionally sponsored community forest management systems in two districts in Tanzania. It describes various types of internally generated forest and tree management systems. It demonstrates that a gap exists between indigenous and externally sponsored management systems. In the externally sponsored projects, the concept of participation implies that rural people should participate in professionals' projects, rather than that professionals should participate in the livelihood projects of rural people. Interventions along these lines generate confrontations, as well as degrees of collaboration and participation between local farmers and projects. The study focusses on three key actor categories to be considered in community forestry projects, i.e. farmers, village extension workers and supervisors. The relations between these actor categories constitute the "middle ground" of community forestry development. This concept refers to the totality of social processes and fields within which the actors attempt to establish common ground for their negotiations over resources and development alternatives. The study seeks to understand how strategic actions and interactions of different actor categories shape the outcome of community forestry projects, as well as how to bridge the gap between internally generated activities and externally sponsored interventions.
The extension and communication programme for the east Usambara catchment forest project
(Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism, Tanzania Forestry and Beekeeping Division, 1994) Kajembe, G. C.; Mwaseba, D.
The extension and communication programme consultancy was commissioned by the East Usambara Catchment Forest Project (EUCFP). The terms of reference have an overall objective of developing a means of communication which can help the project present its objectives and ideas to the local people and enlist their cooperation as a way of sustaining the project activities. Specific objectives of the study includes: Identifying felt needs of the farmers; proposing extension packages which can meet the felt needs of the people so as to solicit their cooperation in safeguarding the forest reserves; identifying appropriate extension methods which can be used to reach these people; and to propose a training programme which can promote genuine participation of both extension agents and the general public.
Estimation of biomass and volume in Miombo Woodland at Kitulangalo Forest Reserve, Tanzania
(Forest Research Institute Malaysia, 1994-12) Malimbwi, R. E.; Solberg, B.; Luoga, E.
Seventeen sample trees of different miombo species distributed in 1 0 sample plots were excavated and measured for volume and green weight. Samples from the roots and stems were taken and treated in the laboratory for biomass determination of the sample trees.Using these data biomass equations for roots and stems as functions of diameter at breast height (DBH) and total height were developed. Stem volume equations were also developed. These equations were used to estimate biomass and volume per hectare for different tree parts. Twenty per cent of the biomass in miombo woodlands was found to be in the roots and 80% was in the aerial parts. Fifty-one per cent was volume of stems > 15 cm diameter and forty-nine per cent was volume of stem < 15 cm diameter.
Household food security in Rural Tanzania: a case study of Moshi Rural District Kilimanjaro Region
(Agricultural University of Norway, 1996) Makundi, Flora L. K.
This research was undertaken to investigate the household food security situation in rural Tanzania. The specific objectives were to evaluate the food and energy adequacy of the study area based on total food production, to study the factors affecting food availability and accessibility and to find out the extent of women’s involvement in food cycles relative to men. A formal structured questionnaire was used to interview 90 respondents from three villages selected from two different agro-ccological zones. Informal surveys were carried out using a non-structurcd questionnaire in group interviews. Various foods raised per annum at household level were expressed as maize equivalents for measuring food and energy adequacy. Both quantitative and qualitative data was obtained in the survey. With quantitative data Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was the statistical tool used to measure homogeneity of the food security variables between the villages whereas Chi-square analysis was used for the qualitative data. Assessment of household food and energy adequacy based on the production data alone shows that on aggregate, the three villages studied were not food deficit on a good year. However, when the villages were treated individually, the lowland village docs not meet food and energy requirement even in a good year. In an average and bad year, all the three villages arc food and energy deficit. When the sold food was also considered, the three villages could not meet the daily food and energy requirement even in a good year. When the results were further disaggregated to household level, it was found that members of the rich households could consume as high as 4500 Kcal/capita/day while members of poor household could consume as low as 500 Kcal/capita/day. Farmers depended mostly on farming to obtain their food. The lowland farmers indicated a state of decrease in their main staples for the past five years whereas the upland farmers indicated a state of fluctuation mainly caused by drought conditions. Other factors affecting food availability were availability of cash crops and animal husbandry activities, partitioning of the main food crops in the households for food and sale (as not all crops produced were meant for direct consumption), the use of bananas and root crops, the amount of stored food and the storage and preservation methods employed. Labour was gender differentiated from the process of food and cash crop production to the final procurement of food at household level. Food accessibility was affected by availability of extra income and the role of that income in securing food, the household and child care and food shortages in the households. The monthly income was from off-farm income-generating activities and from selling food and cash crops. Most of the households surveyed reported food deficit in their homestead before the next harvest. This necessitates the use of different coping strategics in the three villages. Based on the data on food production alone, it was found that most households were not food secure. The main cause of food insecurity was drought and dependence on rainfed agriculture. According to farmers responses, household food security can be improved by buying food during peak season and store it, selling less food at harvest, spending less on alcoholic drinking, women being given more power to decide on matters related to food and through provision of credits to help fanners improve crop and animal husbandly.
A method for optimal design of timber hauling systems under conditions of uncertainty and risk
(University of New Brunswick, 1996) Fue, Goodluck E.
This thesis describes a method for designing optimal timber hauling systems under conditions of uncertainty and risk. This method distinguishes between, and incorporates, natural uncertainty and parameter uncertainty. Natural uncertainty encompasses the variation of the trucking activity times (loading and unloading times, loaded and empty travelling times), and is handled by using probability distributions. Parameter uncertainty is the inability to accurately estimate the parameters of these probability distributions. In this study, parameter uncertainty is addressed from a Bayesian perspective by incorporating, together with some sample data, subjective estimates from experts. In addition, the decision on the optimum combination of trucks, loaders and unloaders is based on the decision maker's attitude toward risk. Design scenarios are analysed by formulating the sequence of hauling activities (i.e., loading, travelling loaded, unloading and travelling empty) as a queueing system, and the equipment combinations are then evaluated by simulation. The inputs to the simulation model include actions (representing the number of trucks, loaders and unloaders), probability distributions (of loading time, unloading time, travel loaded speed and travel empty speed), estimated parameters of these probability distributions, and constants (such as amount of wood to be hauled, hauling distances, etc). Using a cost equation, the simulation outputs are converted into cost and payoff tables. Employing utility functions, which quantify the decision maker's attitude to risk, the optimum combination of trucks, loaders and unloaders is determined based on expected payoff and expected utility criteria. Using basic data supplied by Forest Engineering Research Institute of Canada (FERIC), a two-parameter gamma distribution is selected to represent the input variables in the simulation program. Calculations to estimate the parameters of the gamma distribution using Bayesian methodologies are contrasted with the classical statistical methods. Other possible applications to illustrate the applicability of Bayesian decision analysis in forestry are also presented. The thesis concludes that Bayesian statistics and decision analysis which combines expert prior knowledge with available sample data provides a better methodology for designing timber hauling systems than that provided by classical decision analysis methodologies, especially where woodlands decisions are made with limited sample data.
Comparison of volume production, basic density and stem quality between acacia mangium and acacia Aubicuuformis grown in Zanzibar
(Forest Research Institute Malaysia, 1997) Ali, M.S.; Malimbwi, R. E.; Iddi, S.
Comparison of volume production, basic density and stem quality between Acacia mangium and Acacia auriculiformis grown in Zanzibar. Volume production, basic density and stem quality of 6-y-old Acacia mangium and A. auriculiformis grown in Zanzibar were compared. Twenty-one plots (11 plots for Acacia mangium and 10 for A. auriculiformis ) were established and used for data collection. From each plot one to two trees free from obvious defects were selected for basic density determination. Cores were then extracted from the selected trees using an increment borer. Basic density of the cores was determined by the water displacement method. Height and diameter data were used for volume estimation. Stem quality was assessed using the scoring method, 4 being the best and 1 the worst. At age 6 y, diameter and height growth did not vary significantly (p = 0.05) between the two species. More than 50 m3 ha"1 volume production was achieved in both species. The average volume weighted basic density values for A. mangium and A. auriculiformis were 570 kgm"3 and 617 kgm"3 respectively. The basic density values for the two species differed significantly (p = 0.05). Stem quality was better in A. mangium than in A. auriculiformis. Based on density, A. auriculiformis can be recommended for fuelwood production whereas A. mangium should be recommended for transmission and building poles due to its good stem form.
Growth and yield studies of pinus patula at Mount Meru plantations
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 1998) Tharcisse, Twagirayezu
The main objective of the study was to produce a precise method for estimating growth and yield for Pinus patula at Mount Meru plantations. Using data from 75 temporary sample plots (with size varying from 0.04 to 0.71 ha) distributed over the whole plantation, different functions necessary for the building-up of the model were developed. Statistical packages (QUATRO and EXCEL) were used to fit equations for site index curves, single tree volume, height /diameter, taper, Weibul diameter distribution, increment, stand basal area,These submodels were diameter stand volume and mortality. integrated into computer model in BASIC language capable of estimating yields at a particular age under different stocking levels and thinning regimes. The stand inputs necessary to run the program are present and projection age, number of stems per ha, stand mean and standard deviation of dbh, dominant height, area per hectare and minimum top diameter. site, basal The model gives out yearly figures per ha for number of stems, mean total and merchantable volume, dbh, products. mean height, mean tree total basal area, volume and thinning The cumulative volumes, basal areas and their increments are also produced. Based on cumulative volume production, mean tree size, the mean annual volume increment and the current problem of funds for thinning operations, the no thinning option with a wider spacing of 3.0 x 3.0 m was recommended instead of the current option with three thinnings and an initial spacing of 2.5 x 2.5 m. Yield table printouts were produced based on this option and over all site classes found at Meru plantations. A stand volume table was also constructed for quick stand volume estimation.
Impact of charcoal extraction to the forest resources of Tanzania: the case of Kitulangalo area, Tanzania
(1998) Malimbwi, R.E; Misana, S; Monela, G.C; Jambiya, G; Zahabu, E
Research is being undertaken to expand the knowledge about the biomass potential for supplying charcoal to urban centres and find workable policy tools that will enable sustainable production and use of charcoal in the medium term perspective. The project, CHAPOSA (Charcoal Potential in Southern Africa) focuses on the dynamics of charcoal production in supply areas (mainly woodlands) and its consumption in three major cities: Lusaka, Zambia, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania and Maputo, Mozambique. The three year research project is funded by European Union (EU) and co-ordinated by Stockhom Environmental Institute (SEI). In each of the three partner countries, socio-economic and ecological aspects of charcoal are being studied in the supply areas and charcoal consumption and market forces studies are being undertaken in the cities. Preliminary results on the supply side are presented for Tanzania in this paper. At Kitulangalo one of the charcoal supplying areas in Tanzania, an average charcoal making household produce 43 bags of charcoal per month, charcoal is sold at kiln site at Tshs. 1,000/= per bag. The household realizes an income of Tshs. 43,000/= per month. This income is above the minimum salary rates paid currently to government workers and hence attracts more people to join the business. There are 7 trees of about 10 cm dhb for every 22 bags of about 50 kg of charcoal produced from this area. The mean charcoal kiln efficiency of 23.5% was found. Preferred tree species for charcoal includes, Julbernadia globiflora, Brachystegia boehmii, Tamarindus indica, Acacia nigresces, Acacia gerrardii, Acacia nilotica, Combretum adenogonium, Combretum molle, Combretum zeyheri, Boscia salicifolia, Diplorhynchus condylocarpon, Pseudolachnostylis maprouneifolia, Terminanalia mollis, Pteleopsis myrtifolia,Combretum collinum, Diospyros kirkii, Xeroderris stuhrmanii, Mimusops kummel, Albizia harvey, Acacia goetzei subsp. Goetzei, Lonchocarpus capassa and Mhungilo. Standing wood volume and basal area of these species are lower in public lands compared to forest reserves while stem numbers shows a reversed trend suggesting regeneration of these species in public lands. The public lands at roadside are dominated by large trees of Acacia polyacantha, a pioneer tree species which is not preferred for charcoal making due to its hooked thorns and lighter charcoal which breaks easily during transportation. An average stand growth rate of 2.3 m 3 ha -1 year -1 has been recorded for the re-growth miombo woodland at Kitulangalo.
Survival, growth, stem form and wood basic density of five Pinus Merkusii provenances at Buhindi, Mwanza, Tanzania
(1998) Mugasha, A. G.; Mgalla, H.A.; Iddi, S.; Nshubemuki, L.; Chamshama, S.A.O.; Malimbwi, R. E.
The performance of 16 Pinus oocarpa (including 5 now reclassified as Pinus patula spp. tecunumanii) provenances at Buhindi Mwanza, Tanzania: is evaluated in terms of survival, height growth, breast height diameter, basal area per ha, wood basic density and stem form. The final assessment was carried out at the age of 22 years. The main results of the study were: – Before angular transformation, survival varied from 77% (Rafael, Nicaragua) to 56% (Conacaste, Guatemala). However no significant difference (P >0.05) in survival was detected after such transformation. – Height growth showed significant differences (P< 0.05) at all ages. At 22 years the outstanding provenances were Siguatepeque (Honduras), Rafael (Nicaragua), and Zamorano (Honduras). Least height growth was shown by Bonete (Nicaragua) provenance. – Significant differences (P< 0.05) were detected in breast height diameter. Outstanding provenances were Yucul, Camelias (Nicaragua) and Mt. Pine Ridge-K49 (Belize). Least performers were Zamorano (Honduras) and Lagulnilla (Guatemala) provenances. – Significant differences (P< 0.05) were detected in basal area per ha development. The Bucaral (Guatemala) provenance was outstanding while least basal area development was recorded in the Conacaste, Lagunilla (Guatemala) and Siguatepeque (Honduras) provenances. – The Bucaral (Guatemala) provenance was significantly superior (P< 0.05) in wood basic density. Least wood basic density values were recorded from Camelias, Yucul, Rafael, Junquillo (Nicaragua), Angeles (Honduras) and the Lagumilla (Guatemala) provenances. – No significant differences (P >0.05) in stem form were observed. It is suggested that the 5 Pinus patula SCHIEDE and DEPPE ssp. tecunumanii (EQUILUZ and PERRY) provenances are likely candidates for species diversification in the Lake Victoria zone where the main plantation species is Pinus caribaea. However, noting that more than half of the natural distribution of P. oocarpa occurs outside central America, more provenances need to be tested to cover that extended range. Similarly, the sparse sampling of P. patula ssp. tecunumanii also needs additional representation. Restricting the results of this study to Pinus oocarpa, provenance ranking in diminishing order of performance gives: Bucaral (Guatemala), Zapotillo, Zamorano (Honduras), Chuacus (Guatemala), Siguatepeque (Honduras), Bonete, Junquillo (Nicaragua), Conacaste (Guatemala), Angeles (Honduras) and San Jose (Guatemala); and Lagunilla (Guatemala). In descending order of performance, suitable Pinus patula ssp. tecunumanii provenances are Mt. Pine Ridge (K49), Mt. Pine Ridge (K29), Rafael, Yucul and Camelias (Nicaragua).
Economics and sustainability of commercial production of wood fuel in Miombo woodlands of eastern Tanzania
(University of the Witwatersrand, 1999) Luoga, E. J.; Witkowski, E. T. F.; Balkwill, K.
Miombo woodlands, which comprise the largest proporti on of the savanna regions of southern Africa, are central to the livelihood of both rural and urban households . Wood fuel is the main source of energy for the majority of the population, with firewood used in rural areas and charcoal in urban centres. Indigenous commercial production of charcoal, using earth mound k ilns, utilises about 42 tree species, a higher number than for any other uses. Over 56% of the trees harvested within communal lands (ranging between 2.4 and 68.6 cm dbh) were felled for charcoal. The apparent profit in charcoal production is attributable to very low capital outlays, "free" own labour, "free raw materials" , lack of concern about associated external costs, high demand for charcoal and lack of alternative income-generating activities. Cutting of tr ees for charcoal implies an opportunity cost as the trees may have been used fo r other purposes such as timber, construction, medicine, firewood and food. Miombo woodlands also perform vital ecosystem serv ices such as carbon sequestration, nutrient cycling and watershed protection. The estimated local wood consumption for charcoal of 6.01 m 3 capita -1 year -1 is very high compared to subsistenc e firewood consumption of only 1.3 m 3 capita -1 year -1 . The area cleared for charcoal production locally was about 1 671 ha year -1 which is about 10% of the accessible area within local communal lands. This shows that al though commercialisation of wood resources provides tangible monetary benefits to rural communities, it also contributes to environmental degradation that will ultimately threaten their long-term survival.
Survival, growth and wood density of Pinus Kesiya provenances at Buhindi, Mwanza, Tanzania
(Forest Research Institute Malaysia, 1999) Chamshama, S. A. O.; Chingonikaya, E. E.; Iddi, S.; Mugasha, A. G.; Nshubemukiand, L.; Malimbwi, R. E.
he objective of this study was to evaluate the performance of 13 Pinus hesiya provenances at Buhindi, Mwanza, Tanzania. Periodic data were collected on survival, breast height diameter and height. A final assessment was carried out at 18.3 y for survival, breast height diameter, height, stem form and basic density. Except for wood basic density, all other variables differed significantly (p<0.05) between provenances. The following provenances with satisfactory performance are recommended for small-scale planting at Buhindi: Benguet Kabayan and Zambales
Indigenous technical knowledge as reflected in the management of natural resources in Tanzania
(FAO, 1999-06) Kajembe, G. C.; Zahabu, E.; Mwenduwa, M.
In the broad sense, natural resource management can be defined as taking a firm decision about future of any area of resources, applying it and monitoring the application (Rietbergen 1993). It is widely accepted that natural resources should be managed to meet the social, economic, ecological, cultural and spiritual needs of present and future generations. Much of these benefits should be geared towards the local communities. Local communities surrounding natural resources should be the first hand beneficiaries to know the resource better than outsiders, and should have, therefore a great role to play in resources management. Within natural resource management systems, Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK) embraces people's knowledge of tools and techniques for the assessment, acquisition, transformation, and utilisation of resources which are specific to the particular location. ITK can encompass
Empowering communities to manage natural resources: where does the new power lie? A case study of Duru – Haitemba, Babati, Tanzania
(SUA, 2000) Kajembe, G. C.; Monela, G. C.
Recent approaches to community – based natural resource management appear diverse as their varied implementing agencies and natural resource settings; yet they rest on a set of common assumptions about community, natural resources and the relationship between them. This paper focuses on power relations between actors and how these set the framework for resource management in Duru – Haitemba. As one of the few remain ing tracts of miombo woodlands, Duru – Haitemba woodlands had been targeted for gazettement. However the exercise faced “local discontent”. The discontent has its origin in the “generalised narrative”. Before the coming of colonial powers the community lived in balanced harmony with nature. But when this harmony was disrupted, it led to disequilibria and hence degradation. A range of factors may be called to account, including: technological change; the breakdown of traditional authority; social change; urban aspirations and the intrusion of inappropriate state policies. What is required is to bring community and environment back into harmony. This requires either the discovery and rebuilding of traditional collective resource management institutions or their replacement by new ones. At the local level there are two factions competing for power: the elites and the traditionalists. The primary concern of traditionalists is “ritual”. Elites tend to hijack community based processes and forcefully occupying the political space opened by decentralization. Besides of the power struggles at the micro level another challenge is on the part of the government leadership at the macro level. Government officials usually have very mixed feelings about community actions. Increasingly though, these officials have come to realize that community action can substitute for the expensive need to put government officials into the field. The paper points out the fact that, community-based natural resource management seems plausible way to cut down public costs of managing resources. However, it remains an arena of power struggle between three actors: Local Communities, Field Agents and Supervisors. This “triangle” of relationships constitute the social arena marking out the actual “locale” of community based natural resource management in Duru – Haitemba.
Contribution of charcoal extraction to deforestation: experience from CHAPOSA Research Project.
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2000) Malimbwi, R.E.; Zahabu, E.; Kajembe, G.C.; Luoga, E.J.
The Charcoal Potential in Southern Africa (CHAPOSA) project which commenced in November, 1999 aimed at increasing the understanding of the effects of utilization of charcoal in three countries of Zambia, Mozambique and Tanzania in southern Africa. The main ecological activities carried out in order to understand the impact of charcoal production on the ecology include: determination of species composition and diversity through forest inventory; determination of mean annual increment for Kitulangalo area from two time series measurements of 1996 and 1999; charcoal tree species and size gradient as influenced by proximity to access roads in Kitulangalo and Mbwewe areas through forest inventory; kiln efficiencies, species and tree sizes preference for charcoal making for Kitulangalo, Mbwewe and Bana areas; woodland cover change between 1991 and 1998; and 1991 and 2000 in the northern and southern catchment parts respectively using satellite imageries. Socio-economic data were collected from Kitulangalo, Mbwewe and Bana. The selection criteria for these sites were: presence of actual charcoal production activities; accessibility relative to other areas in the earmarked catchment area for the study; representative-ness of the study sites in making broad conclusions of the study and availability of ecological and socio- economic data. This study demonstrated that charcoal production and cultivation have an impact on large-scale deforestation that has occurred in the area between 1991 and 1998. Tree species suitable for charcoal production have been depleted at the roadside and the average distance to charcoal production sites has increased. Tree cover is worse today than ten years ago due to charcoal production. These observations have wide policy implications, given the increased demand for charcoal from the growing urban population with no reliable and affordable alternative sources of energy. Only 74% of the closed and 54% of the open woodlands, remain relatively unchanged; most of these were in forest reserves. However, these areas were also undergoing modification due to encroachment for charcoal, timber and other forest products. It is true that in the absence of any further disturbance after tree cutting, the areas may progressively revert to woodland. However, in the face of increased population and the demand for agricultural land, such areas may not be given enough room to regenerate. This calls for appropriate management strategies to ensure regeneration so that the remaining woodlands continue to supply charcoal to Dar es Salaam city and other urban areas. This study has shown that substantial regeneration has occurred in areas previously cut, if they have not been converted to farmland. This increases the potential of the regrowth woodland to supply charcoal over a much longer time period.
Potentials of non wood forest products in household food security in Tanzania: the role of gender based local knowledge
(2000) Kajembe, G. C.; Mwenduwa, M.I.; Mgoo, J.S.; Ramadhani, H.
This study was undertaken to synthesize existing information on the role of gender-based local knowledge in utilization of wild foods and other non-wood forest products for household food security in Tanzania. The study aimed at generating useful knowledge for advocacy, policy making and training. The specific objectives of this study were firstly, to assess issues of accessibility and dependency on wild foods and other non-wood forest products for household food security in the country, secondly, to examine the difference between women’s and men’s local knowledge with regard to collection, processing and utilization of wild foods and other non-wood forest products, and thirdly, to identify potentials and problems/threats with regard to availability of non-wood forest products for household food security. Literature from different authorities was critically synthesized to achieve the study objectives. The available information shows that there exists a wide range of wild foods and non-wood forest products, which are important for household food security. Non-wood forest products contribute through direct consumption of harvested wild foods and indirectly through income generation. The study revealed that there exists ascribed local knowledge between men and women on selection, preparation, utilization, storage and even consumption of wild foods. Furthermore, the study has revealed that non-wood forest products are of vital importance as tools for coping with food shortage and famines. The nutritive value of most wild foods is good and sometimes better than domesticated expensive foods. Despite of all the positive attributes of non-wood forest products, sustainable use of these resources is faced with problems of deforestation, lack of proper forest management regimes and non-homogeneity of non-wood forest products users. However, there exist some opportunities to improve the use of non-wood forest products for sustainable household food security; such as the diversification of forest management systems to incorporate locally valuable non-wood forest products, encouraging fruit trees growing in farms, providing market support and supporting small scale forest based enterprises. From this study it can be concluded that gender based local knowledge is a central issue in the selection, collection and preparation of wild foods. While women are very much knowledgeable about direct food consumption activities, men are more knowledgeable and responsible with income generating non-wood forest products. Furthermore, it can be concluded that the nutritive value of wild foods is substantial and can be used as substitute to the expensive domesticated food items. It is further concluded that increasing pressure of modernization is a problem facing expansion of non-wood forest products for household food security. From the findings of this study, it is recommended that the government, non- governmental organizations and individuals should target women when committing themselves to household food security. It is further recommended that there should be policy interventions to sensitize people on the use of wild foods as substitutes for the domestic ones. Nutritive values for different wild food items be assessed and used to improve food and nutrition security. It is also recommended that detailed study be conducted on local knowledge before it is lost through mordenisation. Last but not least quantification of the contribution of non- wood forest products in food security equation should be done.
Prevalence and standing volume of Dalbergia Melanoxylon in Coastal and Inland sites of Southern Tanzania
(Journal of Tropical Forest Science, 2000) Malimbwi, R. E.; Luoga, E. J.; Hofstad, O.; Mugasha, A. G.; Valen, J. S.
In order to determine the prevalence and standing volume of Dalbergia melanoxylon( mpingo), 120 sample plots were laid out in each of two districts, Kilwa and Nachingwea, representing coastal and inland woodlands in Lindi Region, southern Tanzania. Using data from felled trees, volume equations for various utilisation classes were constructed. Also estimated were the basic density of mpingo, the percentage content Of heartwood, sapwood, and heartrot, and the thickness of bark and sapwood.The basic density values for mpingo were 1.14,0.76 and 1.06 g cm' for heartwood, sapwood, and both heartwood and sapwood. These are multiplier factors to obtain biomass values from volume. The heartwood content of mpingo is 83% of the total volume and the rest (17%) is sapwood and bark. Based on a few logs observed 13% of the total volume may be expected to have heartrot. The sapwood thickness is 1.1 cm with little variation irrespective of log diameter. The bark is thin (3.7 mm) and soft making the tree susceptible to damage by bruising and fire.The inland forests have twice as much overbark volume of mpingo as the coastal forests with 10 and 5 m3 ha"1 respectively. The merchantable volume to 20 cm top diameter overbark is 4.4 and 1.7 m3 ha"1 accounting for only 43 and 33% of the total volume per hectare respectively. Since regeneration of mpingo is easy, there is no immediate need to classify mpingo as an endangered species provided fire control is enhanced as an important conservation measure. It is, however, appropriate to regard the species as threatened.
Effective monitoring of decentralized forest resources in East Africa
(2000) Banana, A.Y.; Gombya-Ssembajjwe, W.; Bahati, J.; Kajembe, G. C.; Kihiyo, V.; Ongugo, P.
There is no doubt that state control of forest resources in many countries has proved to be ineffective in solving and halting the rate of deforestation. The financial and human resources available to government forest departments are inadequate to carry out the task of policing forested areas without the participation of local communities . However, the success of decentralizing resources to local communities depends on solving three puzzles; the problem of supplying new institutions, the problem of credible commitment and the problem of mutual monitoring. IFRI, studies in Uganda have known that monitoring and rule enforcement is very important for the success of decentralized forest resources (Banana and Gombya- Ssembajjwe 1999). Trying to understand how use-groups and /or communities have monitored their own conformance to their agreements as well as their conformance to the rules in the E. African region is the challenge of this study. The study revealed that an effective monitoring strategy involves having good incentives for the monitors and a mechanism to supervise or monitor the monitors themselves. Where effective was effective, there are few illegal activities, high basal area and the physical and biological condition of the CPR was expected to improve with time.
Differential utilization and Ethnobotany of trees in Kitulanghalo forest reserve and surrounding communal lands, eastern Tanzania
(Springer, 2000) Luoga, E. J.; Witkowski, E. T. E.; Balkwill, K.
This study documents the utilization aspects and distri- bution of ethnobotanical knowledge of the local people of Morogoro, Tanzania, as a first step towards sustainable utilization and conservation of tropical woodlands. A total of 133 arbo- rescent species in 31 families was identified of which 69% had a variety of uses. These uses were classified into 12 categories and major uses were charcoal, firewood, medicine, and poles. Most tree species have occasional uses, but a few are exceptionally useful and thus their levels of utilization may far exceed their regeneration and production. The questionnaire survey in- dicated that 62% of the respondents agreed that traditional medical services were more avail- able than modem services. Utilization surveys indicated that wooden poles are the building material used in 98% of the dwellings and storage structures, wild foods were useful for food security especially during drought years, and high quality timber trees have been depleted in the forest because of earlier exploitation by pit-sawing. The distribution of ethnobotanical knowledge indicated that much of the relevant ethnobotanical and utilization information was held by more aged members of the society and hence there is a clear need to capture this knowledge before it is lost. This study has shown that resources are defined by use and culture, and some components of ethnobotanical knowledge have potential for the sustainable manage- ment of miombo woodlands.

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