Theses and Dissertations Collection

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Community response to malaria: Muheza district Tanzania 1983-1984 . A study in cultural adaptation
(1986) Fivawo, Margaret
This study of a rural community in the malaria endemic area of Muheza in Tanzania deals with several issues. (1) Malaria as a health problem is looked at from its ecological epidemiological context. It is seen as a problem which has made it necessary for the resident people to develop knowledge and ways of dealing with it. adaptation to a known hazardous environment. This is the people's (2) The resident people are considered in a historical and cultural context including their early contact with outside cultures. Their closeness to the Indian Ocean made it possible for them to develop early contact with Islamic Arab culture and others that followed later. Missionary contact came early as well and was followed by other Europeans who started the development of sisal, tea anc/ coffee plantations. As a result of this cultural contact, the resident peoples of Muheza developed new adaptive ways of managing malaria. Hence, today, a combination of methods are used to handle malaria and other diseases of the environment. (3) Even though Chloroquine and other Western medicines are popularly used, traditional medicines are also used in various combinations. djins and ancestors. Disease etiologies include parasites, This shows that traditional beliefs and values still strongly influence malaria management behavior even though otheriv factors are also present. The institution of the African extended family, which is based on ancestor kinship linkage, has strong influence on malaria management behavior. (4) The Fishbein behavioral model and theory of reasoned action serve to point out and explain the underlying processes behind the pragmatic observed behavior regarding the use of chloroquine in the management of malaria. (5) Problems in the health services are pointed out and suggestions are made on the direction of change needed to achieve improved management of malaria and other diseases.
Hematology and Glinical Chemistry in Goats
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 1991) Mbassa, Gabriel
The initial objective of this work was to gather as much information on the hematological and clinical chemical reference values for goats. It was desired to present the work in easily readable tables and figures to facilitate comparisons and reference assessments. To achieve this objective it was thought natural, first to review the literature on the factors that affect the reference values and secondly to investigate the trends under the influence of some of the factors. On the second part studies were conducted on growth, environment and metabolic influence on the reference values. This thesis is based on these investigations. Data reported in conventional units were transformed into the International System of Units (SI) to enable comparisons from different sources. Although the contents of the thesis are far from the desired perfection of the objective, it is a pleasure to state that some parts of the original purposes have been accomplished. Credit for this part of the work goes to the Central Laboratory, Department of Clinical Studies, Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, Frederiksberg and the financial sponsor, the Danish International Development Agency. I am very pleased to express my sincere thanks to Associate Professor Dirch Poulsen, Head of the Central Laboratory. I owe my deep gratitude for his interest in my research on hematological and clinical chemical reference values in goats, his continuous encouragement and allowing me free access to the facilities in the laboratory. I am indebted to Professor Prebcn Willeberg, Department of Animal Science and Animal Health for his fruitful and concentrated knowledge on experimen tal planning and data management via the supporting subject epidemiology. I am also indebted to Associate Pofessor Knud Christensen, Department of Animal Science and Animal Health for advice on statistical analysis of the results. I gratefully acknowledge Mr. Walther Kraul, Central Laboratory for his invaluable knowledge on the theoretical and practical use of computers and softwares in the laboratory. My deep gratitude is extended to Miss Emma Thomsen for her encourage ment, technical help in blood sample collections, careful and skillful work in analysis of the numerous parameters I requested for, which in most cases went beyond normal working hours. I am indebted to Associate Professor Jesper Monrad, Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Mr. Knud Larsen, Ms. Greta Schmedes, Jytte Anderson, Pia Jensen and Ingrid Dam for the offer of goats for blood samples in their herds in Denmark. I extend this gratitude to Dr. D. B. Mpiri, The Commissioner for Livestock Research, Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development Tanzania, for granting me permission to perform research at Malya Livestock Research Station, Mwanza, Tanzania. I would like to give my sincere thanks to Professor Sven Gade Christensen, Danida Project Coordinator, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Sokoine viUniversity of Agriculture, Morogoro, Drs. J. Msanga, J. Mukangi, M. Yongolo, Mr. Lugola, A. Masanja and other staff of The Veterinary Investigation Center, Mwanza and Malya Livestock Research Station for transport, laboratory facilities and technical assistance. It is impossible to list all my colleagues in the Department of Clinical Studies who assisted me in this project. I express my thanks to them all. I am obliged, however, to mention particularly Associate Professor Jens Ambjerg, Drs. Magishi Mgasa, Asger Lundorff Jensen, Falmer Hansen, Thomas Eriksen and Jens Madsen for their very useful discussions and comments on the manuscripts. I am very grateful to Lis Kjaer Jensen for translation of the thesis abstract into Danish and together with Anne Marie Norregird for secretarial assistance throughout my studies. I am happy to express my profound gratitude to Drs. Kaj Bruhn and Jorgen Henriksen of Research and Information Bureau. As a student of two Universities in a sandwich program, they offered me their sincere and friendly advice on my scholarship and provided solutions to problems that arose in the course of this program. I am also thankful to Mrs Mariane Boesen, the students adviser, Internation al Student Center and Mr. Sdren Clausen, the caretaker of my residential place at the Danida fellowship Center for offering me a very comfortable place that enabled me to concentrate fully on my studies. I am also very pleased to once again acknowledge the continuous support offered to this project by the Danish International Develop ment Agency, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Copenhagen. Finally I wish to express my deepest gratitude to Anna, Leah, Patrick, Peter and John Mbassa (my family) for allowing me to fulfil my obligations and expectations in Denmark, to gain knowledge for development of Tanzanian people. They have been patient and accepted to endure difficulties due to my absence
Ultrastructural study of brain with experimental cowdria ruminantium infection (heartwater)
(1991) Mwamengele, George L. M.
Heartwater is an infectious, vector-borne, non-contagious disease of ruminants caused by Cowdria ruminantium. The etiologic agent is an obligate, intracellular parasite infecting phagocytic cells and, particularly, vascular endothelium. Transmission is effected by a three- host tick of the genus Amblyomma. Clinically, the disease is characterized by fever and signs of central nervous system disorder. There is general agreement on a deranged transport mechanism across the vascular wall as the basis for the development of morphologic lesions and clinical signs, but the actual mechanism of damage is poorly understood. Previous ultrastructural studies are few and have mainly been concerned with the parasite itself. The present morphologic study of the cerebral microvasculature is an attempt to elucidate the pathogenesis of the central nervous system changes. Five, clinically healthy, adult, Danish goats were used to establish the optimal procedure for perfusion fixation of the brain and, at the same time, to serve as normal controls. The animals were put under general anesthesia with pentobarbitone intravenously at 25 mg/kg and placed in dorsal recumbency. Following dissection of the ventral neck region intubation was performed and carotid arteries were isolated. Heparin (1250 i.u./kg) was injected and perfusion done through one of the carotid arteries using 3% phosphate-buffered glutaraldehy de solution at pH 7.4 and 500 mOsm. The best perfusion results were achieved with the tank placed 1.5 m above the heart. The brain was removed and 1 mm3 samples were diced from the best fixed areas of the cerebral and cerebellar cortices and further fixed i 3% glutaraldehyde solution. Some of the samples were routinely processed and stained for transmission electron microscopy. In an attempt to improve fixation and enhance demonstration of cellular membranes and other structures, other samples were subjected to alternative processing and staining regimes including reduced osmium tetroxide, ruthenium red, tannic acid, and uranyl block staining. On balance, however, these regimes did not produce entirely satisfactory results and were therefore omitted in the experimental studies. Corresponding pieces of brain tissue were post-fixed in 10% neutral, buffered formalin and routinely processed for light microscopy. A complete necropsy was performed and various tissues were taken and similarly processed for light microscopy. Fourteen Tanzanian blended goats were experimentally infected by intravenous inoculation with the Ball 3 strain of Cowdria ruminantium. Following an incubation period of about 2 weeks the animals developed temperatures up to 41.7°C. Other clinical signs included bleating, loss of appetite, loss of body condition, listlessness, abdominal respiration, stupor, head tremors and ataxia. In 2 goats, fits, opisthotonus, paddling movements and lateral recumbency were also observed. When temperatures started to drop the animals were killed and subjected to the same procedures as the controls. Necropsy revealed mild hydropericardium (2-13 ml) and splenomegaly in all 14 goats. Other, inconstant findings were urine retention in bladder, subepi- or subendocardial petechiae and flabbiness of the heart. In areas of incomplete perfusion leptomeninges appeared hyperemic. Light microscopically, Cowdria organisms were found in vascular endothelium of the brain in 8 goats. Focal perivascular mononuclear cell infiltrations, sometimes extending into the adjacent neuropil, were present in the brains of 12 animals. More extensive mononuclear cell infiltrations, occasionally with a few eosinophils, were in the leptomeninges of 11 goats. Focal mononuclear cell infiltrations were also found, although variably, in pulmonary and renal interstitium and in subepi- and subendocardial locations. All experimental animals ex hibited moderate hyperplasia of splenic lymphoid tissue. The only ultrastructural change of parasitized endothelial cells was compression and displacement of cytoplasm and organelles by membrane-bound colonies of Cowdria organisms. Perivascular accumulations of cells, consisting of macrophages, lymphocytes and occasional plasma cells, were invariably associated with non-parasitized segments of capillaries or venules. Often intravascular mononuclear cells were seen adhering to the endothelium with portions of their cytoplasm dipping into the endothelial cell membrane or interposed between the endothelial cell and the basement membrane. Large, spherical, electron-dense inclusions, often several in the same cell, were found in pericytes, both in control and experimental animals but with a notably higher incidence in the latter. Similar inclusions as well as smaller inclusions with the features of lipofuscin were seen in perivascular macrophages. An additional and unique type of cytoplasmic inclusion was encountered in perivascular macrophages. These inclusions presented as aggregations of irregularly round, membrane bound particles, 0.25-0.4 /zm in diameter, in some cases with an internal structure remini scent of partly degraded mitochondria. However, the aggregations were not convincingly enclosed within membranes as would be expected in case of autophagocytosis. Another, hypothetical, interpretation is that they represent abortive stages of Cowdria ruminantium attempting to develop extravascularly and that possibly cell-mediated immunity, developed during and after the incubation period, limits this second cycle within the host and results in the perivascular mononuclear cell infiltrations observed. The findings in this study suggest the possibility of a direct involvement of circulating monocytes in the pathogenesis of the brain lesions. Such cells may carry and shield the antigen through the vessel wall into extravascular sites since no signs of vasculitis or abnormal vascular permeability were found, making it unlikely that soluble antigens are involved. The finding of a morphologically intact endothelium and vessel wall, even under perfusion conditions, also casts doubt on a possible role of vasoactive substances in the development of the lesions. If and when permeability changes of the brain microvasculature occur, they apparently represent a later development of an inflammatory process rather than a primary mechanism in the pathogenesis of cerebral heartwater.
Studies on the effects of trypanosoma congolense infection on the reproductive function of the ram
(University of Glasgow, 1993-12) Mutayoba, Benezeth Mugyabuso
This thesis describes a series of studies carried out in Scottish blackface rams experimentally infected with Trypanosoma congolense stabilates 57/10 and 57/11 (originally imported from ILRAD, Kenya as ILRAD 1180) with the primary aim of determining the effects of infection on the function of the hypothalamo-pituitary-gonadal axis. The studies also investigated the possibility that pyrexia is responsible for inducing gonadal endocrine and exocrine dysfunctions in infected animals. In addition the effect of infection on the function of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis was assessed in order to determine whether reproductive dysfunction generally seen during trypanosomiasis is related to stress caused by the infection. Chapter I comprises an introduction and a literature review on trypanosome- induced reproductive dysfunctions with emphasis on pyrexia and changes in the HPA axis. Chapter II describes the two experiments carried out in rams infected with T. congolense and the general materials and methods used in these studies. Chapter III describes the effects of infection on semen characteristics and pathology of various reproductive organs such as the testis, cauda epididymis, prostate and pituitary gland. It was found that T. congolense induced a progressive deterioration of semen quality in terms of an increased percentage of abnormal spermatozoa in the ejaculate. Progressive non-inflammatory degenerative changes were observed in the testis and prostate gland. The cauda epididymis showed varying degrees of decreased sperm reserve. Trypanosome-induced pyrexia led to an elevation of scrotal temperature in infected rams, suggesting that the changes in the gonads could have been due to increased testicular temperature. Indeed, similar changes were observed in the semen and gonads of uninfected rams following artificial elevation of testicular temperature by scrotal insulation. The pituitary gland showed changes associated with increased basophilic degranulation in infected rams. Changes in plasma concentrations of reproductive hormones in the same rams are described in Chapter IV. It was observed that soon after the onset of parasitaemia, which occurred within 1-2 weeks of infection, plasma testosterone concentration declined and levels remained low throughout the infection period. This reduction in plasma testosterone concentration was associated with a progressive and marked decline in testosterone pulse amplitude and testosterone secretion after injection of gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) was also depressed throughout the infection period. By four weeks after infection, declining plasma testosterone concentration was accompanied by a significant increase in plasma luteinizing hormone (LH) pulse amplitude and increased pituitary responsiveness (LH secretion) to exogenous GnRH. As the infection progressed up to 8 weeks, the plasma LH concentration declined. This could not be associated with some aspects of gonadal steroid feedback as similar LH changes were observed in infected rams which had been castrated. Neither was the decline in plasma LH concentration caused by the inability of the pituitary gland to secrete and release LH as secretion of LH in response to exogenous GnRH was not impaired throughout the infection period. It was therefore concluded that the decline in plasma LH concentration after 8 weeks of infection was possibly induced by a progressive impairment of the ability of the hypothalamus to synthesize and/or release GnRH. Gonadal steroidogenesis in infected rams was investigated in the in vitro experiments described in Chapter V. This work showed that the alteration in plasma testosterone concentration following infection was associated with a decline in Leydig cell steroidogenesis, possibly mediated by increased testicular temperature affecting testosterone biosynthetic enzymes. However, by 4 weeks after infection, reduced plasma testosterone in infected animals was exacerbated by the impaired ability of the testes to release testosterone into the circulation resulting in a significant increase in intratesticular testosterone content. A similar increase was also observed in scrotal- insulated rams and it was therefore suggested that changes in intratesticular testosterone in infected rams at 4 weeks of infection was associated with a trypanosome-induced increase in testicular temperature perhaps through an effect on testicular blood flow. The effects of T. congolense infection on the function of the HPA axis in rams and the relationship between this and the changes in the hypothalamo-pituitary-gonadal axis are described in Chapter VI. The onset of parasitaemia stimulated a significant increase in plasma cortisol concentration which was followed within 3-6 week of infection by a decline in plasma cortisol levels and a reduced ability of the pituitary to secrete adrenocorticotrophin hormone (ACTH) after injection of corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH). Thereafter, the activity of the HPA axis was increased in step with the fluctuating parasitaemia. CRH stimulation of the HPA axis had no effect on LH secretion but reduced the plasma concentration of testosterone indicating the possible aggravation of T. congolense-induced reproductive disorders by stress-induced cortisol. The general discussion and conclusions drawn from all the experiments are. presented in Chapter VII. It can be concluded that T. congolense causes a very profound dysfunction of the hypothalamo-pituitary-gonadal axis in rams through actions at various sites. These effects may be partly associated with trypanosome-induced pyrexia and are exacerbated by increased plasma cortisol concentrations resulting from the activation of the HPA axis.
Epidemiological studies on bovine parasitic otitis
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 1998) Shayo, Elizabeth Tabu Elikana
Experimental infection with Rhabditis bovis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Actinomyces pyogenes was carried out on fifty-three male weaner calves. The calves were inoculated into their ears with seven different combinations of suspensions of Rh. bovis, P. aeruginosa and A. pyogenes, the eighth group (control) was inoculated with phosphate buffered saline (PBS). Twenty-five calves (47.2%) developed mild to severe clinical manifestations in-groups inoculated with the nematode and the bacteria. Calves inoculated with the bacteria alone and the control did not develop clinical manifestations. There was significant difference (P<0.05) in responses between groups one, two, three and four which were inoculated with bacteria and nematode and those inoculated with bacteria alone and the control group. The responses were not significantly different (P>0.05) between groups five, six, and seven which were inoculated with bacteria alone and the control group. Histopathological studies revealed polymorphonuclear cell infiltration, thickening and desquamation of the epithelium of the aural canal. In this study, Rh. bovis was shown to be a primary pathogen although histologically there was no evidence of the involvement of the nematode. Bacteria exacerbated the clinical effects only in the presence of the nematode. Studies on the roles of dips and spray races in the transmission of the nematode Rh. bovis were carried out by subjecting 20 healthy cattle to dipping, 20 to spraying using Steladone®, and 20 to a topical application with Ectopor® SA 020 (Ciba - Geigy Limited Switzerland) as controls. No animal in all three groups contracted the disease. The dip wash and mud from the footbath and in the collecting pens were examined for the presence of nematodes. Nematodes were isolated from manure from night pens in only one farm and one dip and none from the footbath and collecting pens. Dip tanks were established as temporary reservoir of the nematode only during dipping and nematodes were introduced mainly through ears of infected animals. The prevalence of P. aeruginosa and A. pyogenes in the ears of clinically healthy cattle and those clinically affected with bovine parasitic otitis was established by bacteriological examination of 652 samples from diseased animals and 410 from non diseased animals. Prevalence rates of 1.5% in diseased ears and 5.1% in non-diseased ears for P. aeruginosa and 4.9% and 2.5% in diseased and non-diseased ears for A. pyogenes respectively were determined. From this study, it has been found that severe clinical disease of bovine parasitic otitis is significantly associated with A pyogenes (OR=1.27) while P. aeruginosa has a “sparing” effect (OR=0.27) Further studies on the role of flies on the transmission of bovine parasitic otitis are required.
Prevalence, epidemiology, and virulence of Pasteurella multocida and related organisms obtained from poultry and their animal contacts
(The Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, 2000) Muhairwa, Amandus Pachificus
This thesis is divided into two sections. The first section presents six reviewing chapters in relation to work performed and a chapter detailing conclusions from the study. The second part contains four papers referred to as Appendix 1-1V, which detail the work in the thesis. The articles I and II present prevalence and epidemiological investigations of P. multocida in commercial poultry flocks in Denmark, and free range village chickens and their contact animals in Tanzania. Article 111 discusses phenotypic, molecular and epidemiological investigations of Pasteurella species obtained from Tanzania. The last article presents the study on correlation between serum resistance, outer-membrane proteins and virulence of P. multocida. The prevalence of P. multocida carriers in the flocks with a history of fowl cholera was shown to be significantly higher than that of the flocks without a history of fowl cholera in commercial flocks in Denmark (Appendix I). These findings underline the importance of surviving birds in the epidemiology of fowl cholera. The carriers in flocks without history of fowl cholera were also demonstrated, but their role in fowl cholera is still uncertain. All three subspecies of P. multocida, namely ssp. Multocida, ssp. septica and ssp. gallicida were demonstrated, but the subspecies gallicida was obtained exclusively from Pekin ducks from a farm with a history of fowl cholera. A single clone affected each of the investigated flocks, but some clones appealed in more than a single flock. Investigations into strains of P. multocida from one of the farms in four consecutive outbreaks demonstrated a different clone in each outbreak. This indicates that outbreaks are clonal, and the disease can be eliminated from the infected farms. Isolation of P. multocida from the cloacal mucosa of earners was reported for the first time, however, the significance of cloacal earners in spreading infection is not known. Occurrence of P. multocida and related species in free ranging chickens and ducks, dogs and pigs (Appendix II) was investigated in three subclimatic zones; hot, warm viand cool, in rural Morogoro district, Tanzania. The strains obtained included P. multocida ssp. multocida from chickens, ducks, cats and dogs, /< multocida ssp. septica from dogs and cats, gallinarum from a duck, P. canis and P. dagmatis from dogs, and P. slomatis from dogs and cats. Other strains included organisms with uncertain taxonomic affiliation named taxon 16, and unclassified strains with Pasteurella like features. P. multocida was obtained from two chickens (2%) and 11 ducks (22%) of warm zone. No isolates were obtained from poultry in the remaining zones. Cats had the highest prevalence of P. multocida ssp. multocida, while P. canis and taxon 16 were predominant in dogs. Mouse inoculation was more sensitive in etecting P. multocida ssp. multocida than blood agar and selective medium. Direct culture on blood agar recovered most of the other Pasteurella spp.. These findings demonstrated the existence of P. multocida carriers in the free ranging village poultry, cats and dogs, and underline the potential of exchange of strains between the different animal species. Surveillance of diseases in free ranging village chickens to gauge the clinical importance of fowl cholera and other diseases was recommended. One hundred and forty-three Pasteurella spp. strains and ten unclassified strains obtained from free ranging poultry, dogs and cats were investigated by extended phenotypic characterization (Appendix III). One hundred and forty-nine of these strains were selected for further studies using ribotyping and REA-typing to evaluate the role of dogs and cats in P. multocida transmission to poultry. Seven and six-type strains were included for comparison in phenotyping and genotyping, respectively. Eleven clusters and six unclustered strains were revealed by phenotyping. Ribotyping outlined twelve clusters and six unclustered strains. A correlation between clusters obtained by phenotyping and ribotyping was demonstrated which indicated that a genetic basis exists for clusters outlined by quantitative evaluation of phenotypic data. Similarities and differences in hosts, phenotype, ribotype, and zone of isolation were demonstrated among Pasteurella strains investigated. Isolates of P. multocida from ducks were shown to be clonal by both phenotyping and ribotyping. These strains were identical to one of the chicken strains. REA-typing, however, showed that the chicken strain was different underlining that exchange of clones of P. multocida viibetween avian species seems to be rarely happening under village conditions. Management practices in the villages suggest the potential for exchange of P. multocida between poultry and animals kept in contact. Tire present findings, however, did not indicate that clones of P. multocida are widely exchanged between poultry and other animal species even though close contact exists. In the present investigation, exchange of clones of P. multocida was only demonstrated among animals belonging to the same species. Caution is drawn to the use of ribotyping alone for epidemiological typing and tracing of P. multocida. The present results also underline the importance of proper phenotyping in the identification of P. multocida and related species. Serum resistance of P. multocida in the sera from chickens, turkeys, ducks and pigs was determined and correlated with in-vitro and in-vivo outer-membrane proteins expression and virulence in chickens. Eighty-seven field strains of Pastcurella and nine reference strains representing different clones were grown in sera from chickens, ducks, turkeys and pigs. Serum activity of each strain was measured by changes in the optical density of the serum after inoculation and incubation at 41 °C for chicken, turkey and duck serum and 39 "C for pig serum. The strains were classified into High serum resistant (R), moderate serum resistance (M), and serum sensitive (S) by comparing with strains of known serum activity. Strains of identical genotype by Restriction endonuclease analysis were found to have identical growth curves and the same maximum OD values, when cultured in serum from the same host species. Turkey serum was shown to be less inhibitory to a wide range of P. multocida strains than chicken, duck and pig sera. Serum resistant strains were demonstrated among avian as well as mammalian strains, with the proportion of serum resistant strains being higher in fowl cholera outbreak strains than in non-outbreak avian strains. A range of minor and major outer-membrane proteins were common among the selected serum resistant and serum sensitive strains, when cultured in BHI, in-vivo and in chicken serum. However, no specific OMP expressed in vitro or in vivo was consistent with serum resistance or sensitivity among the strains investigated. Although most severe lesions in experimentally infected chickens were produced by a serum resistant strain, lesions were also found in chickens infected by scrum sensitive strains, indicating the involvement of multiple factors in the virulence of P. multocida. Further investigations on scrum resistance should also relate other host and bacterial factors responsible development of fowl cholera.
Performance of grazing crossbred cattle supplemented with minerals: calcium, phosphorus and zinc
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2001) Phiri, Elliot Chikula Jailos Henderson
A study was conducted from 1997 to 1999 in Iringa region, Tanzania in order to evaluate the mineral status and performance of grazing crossbred dairy cattle as affected by season and nature of mineral supplementation. Initially concentration of calcium, (Ca), phosphorus (P) and zinc (Zn) in soil, grass pasture and blood plasma were measured. Seasonal effect was apparent (P< 0.05) in soil and pasture mineral concentration. Soil calcium (4.46 - 5.67 me /100g), was adequate during the dry and the rainy season. Soil phosphorus (P< 0.05) was low during the rainy season and high in the dry season (11.9 - 14.8 vs 28.1 - 31.8 ppm) whereas zinc (0.81 - 1.02 ppm) was deficient in both seasons. Pasture Ca (0.33 - 0.39%) and P (0.25 - 0.34%), were adequate whereas Zn (21.2 - 25.2 ppm) was inadequate for the sampled periods. Blood plasma Ca (<2.20 mmol/1), inorganic phosphate (< 1.28 mmol/1) and Zn (<12.2 pmol/1) were marginal to normal values in the sampled dairy cattle. Other minerals in the soil and grass pasture were also analysed. Sodium (Na) (0.31 - 0.37 me /100g), potassium (K) (0.36 - 0.42 me /100g), iron (Fe) (76.4 - 101 ppm) and copper (Cu) (1.38 -2.24 ppm) were adequate during the dry and the rainy seasons. However, magnesium (Mg) (0.99 - 1.57 me /100g) was deficient in both seasons. Pasture K (2.05 - 2.67%), Na (0.21- 0.23%) and Fe (154 - 190 ppm) were adequate whereas Mg (0.15 -0.17%) and Cu (2.53 - 4.57 ppm) were inadequate in the sampled periods. In an attempt to quantify the requirement for supplementation of Ca, P and Zn forty eight dairy cows in their first, second and third parity were allocated to eight groups, comprising six cows based on breed, parity, stage of lactation and milk yield. Group 1 was control group receiving no mineral supplement; group 2 (Ca) received 10 g of Ca in the form of calcium carbonate (CaCCh); group 3 (P), received 8 g of P in the form of sodium monophosphate (Na2HPC>4.2H2O) and group 4 (Zn) received 400 mg of Zn in the form of zinc oxide (ZnO). The rest of the groups received a combination of Ca and P or Zn or both. Animals were drenched with the minerals daily as of May 1997 to March 1999. Performance was evaluated in terms of cow’s health status, milk yield and reproductive performance and by measurement of blood parameters and metabolites which affect health, energy and protein balance before supplementation started and thereafter at every two month intervals. Significant differences (P< 0.05) were observed between groups in terms of performance. Low plasma Ca, Pi and Zn were more prevalent in the dry season (P < 0.05) especially in the month of July and during calving period in the month of March. None of the Ca, P and Zn formulations were able to rectify the low plasma Ca observed during these periods, however, Ca supplementation in the form of CaCCh. improved tissue P and Zn status. Diy season supplementation with concentrates, hay and fresh forage improved plasma Ca, Pi and Zn concentrations. Cows supplemented with Ca in the form of CaCOj only were superior (P< 0.05) in terms of body condition, less cases of mastitis and anaplasmosis, short calving interval (< 365 days) and high milk yield with high fat and protein content compared to the other groups. General health status, live weight gain, body condition score were affected negatively with P supplementation in the form of Na2HPO4.2H2O alone. Supplementation with Ca/Zn in dairy cows maintained copper balance, however, the other formulations resulted in reduction in copper balance. Supplementation of P/Zn maintained stable levels of blood selenium concentration during both the dry and rainy season. Calcium and Zn supplementation reduced the blood selenium concentration in the rainy season. Since incidences of low plasma Ca, Pi and Zn occurred during the dry season, supplementation with concentrate, hay and fresh forage during the dry season should be encouraged to the farmer and other farmers with similar problems for better metabolism of Ca, P and Zn. However caution should be taken with type and the amount of Ca, P and Zn fed to the animals to avoid interactions between these elements other minerals like Cu and Se. Since P requirements for tropical grazing cattle is not known with certainty, further research on P requirements in grazing crossbred cows is recommended. Magnesium and Cu were inadequate in forage, supplementation of these minerals in the diet was recommended. The effects of Ca, P and Zn supplementation on Cu and Sc balance need more research in order to quantify the effects and understand the mineral interaction mechanisms involved.
Diversity among local chicken ecotypes in Tanzania.
(Sokoine University of Agriculture., 2003) Msoffe, Peter L. M.
This study was conducted in order to establish the genetic and phenotypic diversity among nine local chicken ecotypes of Tanzania namely Ching’wekwe, Kuchi, Mbeya, Morogoro-medium, N’zenzegere, Pemba, Singamagazi, Tanga and Unguja in a series of five experiments. The first experiment determined the genetic diversity among the ecotypes using manual microsatellites typing. Allele numbers, genetic distancing, differentiation (Gst), and individual associations were established between the nine local detected across all loci ranging between 4 and 15 per loci. Up to 100% (n = 13) of individuals in some ecotypes clustered together. The phylogenetic trees grouped the productivity and reproductive performance of the ecotypes. Weekly weight measurements and growth rates were evaluated for each ecotype and sex of the birds as between ecotypes in the parameters studied. Ching'wekwe showed consistently low productivity contrary to Morogoro-medium and Tanga ecotypes often showing higher values. The third experiement assessed the disease resistance potential by challenging one-week old chicks with 2.54 x 10'8 CFU of virulent S. gallinarum strain. For 14 days, clinical signs, necropsy findings, antibody titres, haematocrit, leukogram, growth rate differences in the leukogram; viable bacterial cell counts as well as the effect on growth chicken ecotypes and phylogenetic trees were constructed. In total, 152 alleles were and viable bacterial cell counts in the liver and spleen were recorded. There were was egg weight, fertility and hatchability. Significant differences (P<0.05) existed chickens by geographical and historical origin. The second experiment was on rate between the different ecotypes. Based on clinical signs and mortality, N’zenzegere and Mbeyci ecotypes as well as the commercial layer strain appeared to be the most severely affected. The fourth experiment studied the responses of ecotypes to Newcastle disease vaccine. Parents (hens) were vaccinated and HI titres measured after two weeks on hens, eggs and chicks hatching from the eggs. Some chicks were monitored until their HI litres were zero and then were vaccinated against Newcastle disease. HI titres titres were observed for a further 28 days. The HI titres in chicks were higher than those of hens and eggs. Tanga ecotype showed early protective immunity while Morogoromediuni and Mbeya ecotypes showed persistently higher responses. The fifth experiment assessed the productivity and reproductive performance of the local chickens under freerange system. Wide ranges were detected in the parameters investigated and there were significant differences in productivity between the different farmers. The overall hatchability was 80% with ranges between 33 and 100%. It was concluded that genetic and phenotypic diversity exists in the local chicken ecotypes of Tanzania. The diversity constitutes a valuable resource for use in breeding programmes for improvement of the health and productivity of the local chickens and in designing proper conservation strategies. Further studies are required to identify genetic markers associated with the performance of the Tanzanian medium ecotype (Morogoro-mediuni and Tanga) is required to ascertain their suitability for promotion throughout the country. productivity and disease resistance within the local chicken ecotypes. In depth studies on were monitored weekly for 28 days; 70 days later, the chicks were re-vaccinated and titres were observed for a further 28 days. The HI titres in chicks were higher than those of hens and eggs. Tanga ecotype showed early protective immunity while Morogoromediuni and Mbeya ecotypes showed persistently higher responses. The fifth experiment assessed the productivity and reproductive performance of the local chickens under freerange system. Wide ranges were detected in the parameters investigated and there were significant differences in productivity between the different farmers. The overall hatchability was 80% with ranges between 33 and 100%. It was concluded that genetic and phenotypic diversity exists in the local chicken ecotypes of Tanzania. The diversity constitutes a valuable resource for use in breeding programmes for improvement of the health and productivity of the local chickens and in designing proper conservation strategies. Further studies are required to identify genetic markers associated with the performance of the Tanzanian medium ecotype (Morogoro-mediuni and Tanga) is required to ascertain their suitability for promotion throughout the country.
Occurrence and characteristics of A. vibacterium paragallinarum in Uganda
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2006) Byarugaba, Denis Karuhize
Investigations were conducted to establish the occurrence and characteristics of Avibacterium paragallinarum in Uganda. Seven hundred and ten bacteriological and serum samples (642 from healthy birds and 68 from chickens with coryza-like signs) were collected from chickens and turkeys for isolation of bacteria and demonstration of antibodies. Isolates were characterised by phenotypic (scrotyping, biotyping and antimicrobial susceptibility) and genotypic methods (enterobacterial repetitive intergenic sequence based polymerase chain reaction, ERIC-PCR and distribution of resistance genes). The potential role of gallinaceous birds in transmission of A.paragallinarum was evaluated experimentally and the efficacy of a commercial vaccine against the disease was assessed. Only five isolates were recovered and all were serotype C and NAD-dependent. Overall seropositivity was 40.5%, with 18%, 0.5% and 22 % against serotypes A, B and C, respectively. No antibodies were demonstrated in turkey sera. Multidrug resistance was demonstrated in three isolates and resistance genes for sulphamethoxazole (sn/2), ampicillin (blaTEM), tetracycline (tetC and tetA) and streptomycin (strA) were demonstrated. Only antimicrobial resistance markers differentiated isolates according to their epidemiological background. Commercial and local chickens were equally susceptible to challenge while turkeys and guinea fowls showed transient mild signs and did not transmit infection neither did they pick infection from infected chickens. The isolates were resistant in normal chicken scrum at both 3 and 6 hours of incubation but resistant at 3 hours and sensitive at 6 six hours in turkey and guinefowl sera. The susceptibility of the isolates in serum correlated with their pathogenicity in the different poultry. No carrier status was demonstrated in this study using PCR and culture. Vaccinated birds were partially protected. This is the first report of isolation and characterisation of A. paragallinarum from Uganda. Resistance genes in A. paragallinarum are also reported for the first time. Studies based on a wider collection of isolates would be important to elucidate the mechanisms behind their persistence in carrier chickens and the potential exchange of resistance genes among respiratory tract pathogens.
Study on congenitally acquired Plasmodium Falciparum infection in neonates in Muheza district, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2006) Mwangoka, Grace Wynn
The study aimed to determine if infants diagnosed with malaria parasites in the age below three months acquire the infection congenitally from their mothers through the placenta. Placenta blood, cord blood samples and blood from infants born of mothers diagnosed with placental malaria by blood smear and presented clinical malaria below three months of age were examined by PCR amplification, PCR-RFLP and sequenced. Prevalence of Plasmodium falciparum by PCR in the placenta and cord were 9.2% and 65%, respectively and 18 (19.1%) of infants born from mothers diagnosed with placental malaria developed clinical malaria below three months of age. Placental blood and cord blood sample, and placental blood and blood samples of infants below three months that shared the same band size by PCR and fragments size by PCR-RFLP were considered to be genetically related. Though sequencing results confirm differently that, sharing band size and fragments size between samples does not confirm that the parasites are genetically related. Six pairs (40%) out of 14 pairs of placental blood and cord blood samples that shared band size and fragments size, after sequencing were genetically unrelated while eight pairs (60%) were genetically related which is an indication of transplacental transmission of malaria parasites to the cord. One pair (14.3%) of sequenced placental blood samples and blood samples of infants below three months were genetically related. This showed that the malaria parasite that crossed from the placenta to the infants through the cord caused congenital malaria. Over three-fourths (79.8%) of newborn infants delivered from mothers with placental malaria were below normal gestation age and 14.9% of newborn infants had low birth weights. Some 42.5% of primigravidae were found to be parasitized with P.falciparum in the placental. A higher proportional of infants from primigravid were frequently infected with malaria while infants from multigravid observed to acquire malaria infection early in life. Placental malaria, which leads to cord malaria, observed to significantly decrease (P <0.001) as gravid increases.
Self-care practices and psychosocial distress for people with type 2 diabetes mellitus in Dar es salaam, tanzania.
(Sokoine university of Agriculture, 2007) Heri Rashidi, Rashidi
Nutritional intake and modification of lifestyle are the cornerstones for management of Type 2 diabetes. It has been recognized that, in order to achieve satisfactory metabolic control, adoption of self-care skills by the diabetic person is crucial. The aim of this study was to determine self-care practices and diabetes related emotional distress for people with Type 2 diabetes mellitus in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. A cross sectional survey involving 121 people with Types 2 diabetes was conducted in four diabetic clinics located in Dar es Salaam. Both descriptive and inferential statistical analyses were carried out using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS 11.5). Result of the study showed that, the level of self-care practices in area of diet, physical exercises, medication, and blood glucose test was not up to desired level of practice requiring following of all of the recommendations in seven days per week without missing. Diabetic related emotion distress for studied sample was low and comparable to levels reported in other studies however the level was not in line with the score recommended in PAID. The recommended PAID score for emotion is zero. For this reason, efforts are needed to reduce the emotional stress among diabetic subjects. The main problem in self-care was financial limitation and lack of care education. Efforts are therefore required to improve the quality of care including self-care education, counselling and medical support. Following the result of this study it is recommended that, the government and other stakeholders should increase effort to lower the cost of diabetic services like diabetic tests and medications; Given the importance of self monitoring of blood glucose to diabetes care, government, and other stakeholders should strive to make the procedure readily accessible and affordable for all patients who require; Further research is needed to determine optimum self-care practices and diabetic related emotional distress levels that can predict good glycemic control that would help researcher and programme managers to be able to monitor the progress of diabetic care programs.
Assessment of public private partnership on health service delivery in Dodoma municipal and district councils in Tanzania
(2007) Itika, Josephat Stephen
The thesis answers the question: “what is the nature, motive, model, contribution and effects of Public Private Partnerships (PPPs) on health service delivery?” The general objective of the research was to assess the effects of PPPs on public health service provision in Dodoma. The specific objectives were to explore the nature and motives of PPPs, determine PPP models, stakeholders’ contributions, and effects. The PPP continuum model and stakeholder theory are used to generate independent and dependent variables. The independent variables constitute the nature and motives of PPPs and the optional PPP models available. The dependent variables are distance travelled, service costs, service types, service time, profits and service reliability. Cross- sectional case study design is used to guide the study of thirteen PPP cases purposefully sampled. Themes, patterns, clusters and finally tables are used to present qualitative data while content, pattern matching, narratives and cross-case analysis techniques arc used for analysis. Frequencies and pie charts are used to assess stakeholders’ contributions to the partnerships. To determine the influence of PPPs on dependent variables, Analysis of Variance (ANoVA) is utilised at the level of 0.05 significance. To separate the effects of PPPs on the continuous variables, t- test is used to compare pairs of PPP cases. For categorical variables, frequency analysis applies. The findings show that: firstly, the nature and motives for PPPs were centred on the models range between simple collaborations to joint ventures. Thirdly, stakeholders’ contributions included labour, expertise, materials and cash. Fourthly, despite limitations in the initiation and management of the collaborations, the effects of PPPs were significantly positive for all stakeholders. It is recommended that, firstly, the government should establish specific regulations that can be used as guidance in initiating and managing various forms of PPPs in the health sector. Secondly, there should be one responsible unit for managing PPPs in all health projects in the country. Thirdly, there should be more resource decentralisation to the local level to support both public and private initiatives in PPP projects.
Assessment of dichapetalum plants infestation and its susceptibility to three herbicides in Mkuranga district Tanzania.
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2007) Mopei, Nassoro Athumani
A study was conducted in Mkuranga District between October, 2005 and February, 2006 to investigate Dichapetalum plants infestation and effectiveness of selected herbicides on these plants. Specifically, this study intended to identify species prevalence and their coverage in this District. The study further aimed at determining effectiveness of herbicides on the control of Dichapetalum plants. The Purposive sampling was used to select farms for the study. The actual areas of infestation for surveys in these farms were chosen on random basis so as to get representative picture for whole area infested with these plants in the District. The survey conducted using Scientific Quadrant Method, established presence of four Dichapetalum species; Dichapetalum stuhlmanii, Dichapetalum mossambicence, Dichapetalum ruhlandii and Dichapetalum arenarium, with percentage cover of 76%, 42%, 37% and 27% respectively. The plants that were commonly in close association with Dichapetalum plants were Deinbollia borbonica, Annona senegalensis, Xylotheca tetensis and Milletia spp. Dichapetalum plant sprouts were individually sprayed with 2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid (2,4-D), glyphosate (Round up®) and paraquat in the field, followed by observation for responses to herbicides for 60 days. A number of phytotoxic effects were recorded. The efficacies of selected herbicides were assessed in terms of killing percentages. Killing percentages recorded at the end of study (Day 60) were analyzed by MSTAT-C. Overall killing percentage was 16.2 %. On individual herbicide, paraquat recorded the highest killing percentages (17.8 %) among the three tested herbicides. This was followed by 2,4-D (16.3 %). Glyphosate recorded killing percent of 14.6 % which was the lowest in the study. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) has shown that the degree of control on Dichapetalum plants is influenced by herbicide type, dosage rate, and interaction between herbicide and dose. It was concluded that Mkuranga District is heavily infested with Dichapetalum plants and application of 2,4-D, Glyphosate and Paraquat in dry conditions gave poor herbicide performance.
Prevalence, mean intensity and pathology of ectoparasite infections in nile tilapia (oreochromis niloticus) in aquaculture production systems in Morogoro urban and rural areas, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2008) Mtenga, Coletha Mathew
A cross sectional study was carried out between September 2007 to September 2008 in order to investigate the prevalence, mean intensities and pathology of ectoparasite infections on the gills and skin of Nile tilapia (Qreochromis niloticns) in selected ponds in urban and rural areas of Morogoro, Tanzania. Pond area, fish size and water quality were also determined. On-farm oral interviews using structured questionnaire were carried out on each farm involved in the study to establish management practices. Two types of ectoparasite namely: Trichodina species and Monogeneans were identified. Trichodina spp were more prevalent (P < 0.001) than Monogeneans. Gills were the most affected organs than skins with a high number of parasites as well as pathological damage to the tissues (P < 0.001). Main pathological lesions observed on the gills were hyperplasia, sloughing and necrosis of the lamellar epithelium, clubbing and fusion of secondary lamellae. The physico-chemical parameters of water in the ponds and management practices were different from one another in the study area; however, there was no strong correlation between water quality and parasite prevalence and mean intensities of the parasites. Prevalence and mean intensities of parasites in fish varied in different ponds with some ponds having very high prevalence and mean intensity and others with very low. This might be explained by the different management systems based on the knowledge the farmers had on fish husbandry and different weather conditions in the study area. There were significantly higher parasite infections in fish in the urban than in the rural areas (P< 0.05). The overall prevalence in the study area was 68% and on average the mean intensity was 5.3. The ectoparasites seem to pose a threat to the aquaculture industry in Morogoro urban and rural areas as observed in this study. To rescue the situation, educational intervention and further research on tilapia parasitic diseases is needed. Farmers have to be trained on proper husbandry and good management practices of fish farming. There is also a need for the government to promote aquaculture as the country has a great potential for it.
Prevalence of endoparasites of public health importance in pigs slaughtered in Dar es salaam city, Tanzania
(Sokoine university of Agriculture, 2008) Mkupasi, Ernatus Martin
This study was carried out to establish the prevalence of porcine cysticercosis (caused by Taenia solium), hydatidosis and ascariosis in slaughter pigs, and assess the state and distribution of pig slaughter slabs in Dar es Salaam city, Tanzania, between November 2007 and January 2008. All 24 official slaughter slabs located in the three municipalities of Dar es Salaam city (Kinondoni, Ilala, Temeke), were included in the study. A geographical positioning system (GPS) was used to map the location of the slaughter slabs and a checklist was used to assess the state of the slaughter slabs. All the 731 pigs slaughtered in the study area during the study were examined for cysticercosis, hydatidosis, and ascariosis based on national meat inspection guidelines. Data were analysed using SPSS 11.5 and the distribution of pig slaughter slabs was mapped using ArcView 3.2. The pigs slaughtered originated from nine different regions of Tanzania. Out of the 731 pigs examined, (5.9%), (0.4%), and (8.1%) were infected with cysticercosis, hydatidosis, and ascariosis, respectively. There was an important regional variation in the prevalence of porcine cysticercosis, with the highest prevalence in pigs that originating from Manyara and Dodoma regions. The pig slaughter slabs were clustered in certain areas of Dar es Salaam city and most were in poor conditions. The government of Tanzania should devise strategies to control the pig and pork trades, which should include establishment of an appropriate number of well managed pig slaughter houses to enable proper meat inspection in order to safeguard public health.
Prevalence of porcine cysticercosis in Mbozi and Mbeya rural districts, Mbeya Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2008) Komba, Erick Vitus Gabriel
An epidemiological survey was conducted between November and December 2007 in 30 randomly selected villages and four slaughterslabs in Mbozi and Mbeya Rural districts, southern Tanzania, to determine the prevalence of porcine cysticercosis. Fifteen villages and three slaughterslabs were from Mbozi and fifteen villages and one slaughterslab were from Mbeya Rural. A total of 600 live pigs (300 in each district) of different sex and age categories were randomly selected from smallholder pig-keeping households and subjected to lingual examination and Antigen-ELISA tests. Postmortem examination was performed in pigs slaughtered in official slaughterslabs and local brew clubs. Questionnaire survey and direct observations were used to investigate potential factors related to transmission of T. solium. The overall prevalence of porcine cysticercosis in Mbozi district was 11.7% (95% CI = 8.5-15.8%) and 32% (95% CI: 27- 37.5%) based on lingual examination and Antigen-ELISA, respectively. In Mbeya Rural district, the prevalences were 6% (95% CI: 3.8-9.3%) and 30.7% (95% CI: 25.8- 36.1%), by lingual examination and Antigen-ELISA tests, respectively. The agreement between the two tests was poor (κ < 40%). There were no significant differences in the prevalence of porcine cysticercosis in different age and sex categories of pigs. None of the 805 pigs slaughtered at official slaughterslabs was infected with cysticercosis based on post-mortem inspection. However, of those slaughtered at local brew clubs, 8.2% (n=437) in Mbozi district and 10.8% (n=74) in Mbeya Rural were positive for cysticercosis. Potential risk factors for porcine cysticercosis in the districts included poor pig management, poor sanitary practices, lack of knowledge on the transmission of T. solium, and lack of meat inspection services. This study recommends educational campaigns in the study communities on the epidemiology of the disease, and subsequent revision of the current regulatory framework for pig trade and pork inspection to safeguard public health and improve livelihoods.
Prevalence and risk factors of porcine cysticercosis associated with traditional pig production and marketing in Angonia district, Mozambique
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2008) Gule, Cláudio Afonso
This study was carried out to estimate the porcine cysticercosis prevalence by meat inspection, identify the risk factors of porcine cysticercosis along the pig/pork marketing channels and describe the pig productions systems. Data for prevalence were obtained using census of all pig carcasses going through the meat inspection point over a 3-months period. A ledger was used to register information regarding all cysticercosis post mortem inspection findings. The meat inspection was evaluated by total dissection of 30 inspected carcasses. Questionnaire survey was used to access the production systems, risk factors and marketing chains. Out of 205 inspected carcasses, 11 were positive for porcine cysticercosis, giving a prevalence of 5.4% (CI 3.0% to 9.3%). Evaluation of routine meat inspection by dissection of randomly purchased inspected carcasses, revealed a prevalence of 26.7 % (CI 11.0% to 42.3%). Although there was good agreement between findings of meat inspection and dissection (Kappa 73.4%), the difference was attributed to laxity in adherence to inspection procedure. Predilection sites in order of magnitude for cysticerci in pigs were gluteus, Triceps brachii, psoas, masseter, diaphragm, heart, brain, and tongue muscles. Investigation of pig/pork marketing revealed short chains in which pigs/pork passes through few market participants or succession of markets before reaching the consumers. Potential risk factors for porcine cysticercosis along the chains were identified as poor pig management, complete lack of and improper pork inspection, pork consumption, and ignorance about the mode of transmission of Taenia solium/cysticercosis among the key players in the trade. Pigs were only housed when crops were in the fields; after harvest were allowed to graze freely. Animals were fed on kitchen leftovers, pasture, sweat potato leaves, and maize bran. Meat inspection and meat dissection findings confirm that porcine cysticercosis is common in Angónia district and is potentially a serious health problem to pigs and humans.
Risk factors associated with HIV/AIDS infection among itinerant women entrepreneurs in Mbeya city and Kyela district, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2009) Kirway, Jeremiah Norbert
The study to assess risk factors associated with HIV/AIDS infection among itinerant women entrepreneurs (IWE) was conducted in Mbeya City and Kyela District in Mbeya Region. Women in the two districts have trade links with neighbouring countries of Malawi and Zambia. The region has the highest HIV prevalence (14%) in Tanzania. IWEs risk the danger of contracting HIV/AIDS as they are more vulnerable to the disease due to the nature of their work, which compels them to travel from place to place to purchase raw materials for their businesses and in reselling them. Broadly, the objective was to investigate risk behaviours leading to HIV/AIDS infection among IWEs in Mbeya City and Kyela District using a sample of 228 respondents. The study used a cross-sectional research design. In-depth interviews, focus group discussions, questionnaires and observations were used to collect data. Knowledge of HIV/AIDS transmission and prevention methods were assessed using an index of knowledge. Similarly, an index was developed in assessing their sexual behaviours. The study found that knowledge is widespread with 99.6% of respondents having heard of HIV/AIDS. Those who had secondary education were more knowledgeable on HIV/AIDS transmission and protection methods than those with low or no education. Their high general knowledge on HIV/AIDS is not translated into practice whereby over half (50.5%) of them had either low or medium knowledge on HIV/AIDS transmission and protection, suggesting that they are vulnerable to HIV/AIDS infection. Lack of knowledge on HIV/AIDS transmission and protection was also reflected in their risky sexual behaviour which was found to be high as indicated by the computed index mean. The findings call for specific strategies to address problems of itinerant women entrepreneurs. These include: the provision of education and training on business skills and legal rights to IWEs; provision of adequate knowledge on how to protect themselves from HIV/AIDS; assessment of viable means of micro-finance support to them and facilitate their formation; encouragement of IWEs to form associations of petty women traders and to request NGOs to build the capacity of the formed associations to enable them communicate their problems and negotiate with local authorities.
Prevalence, risk factors and genetic relatedness among thermophilic campylobacters from humans and chickens using rapd-pcr in Morogoro, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2009) Chuma, Idrissa Shomari
jejuni and 5% of C. coli were100% similar. Conclusively, zoonotic thermophilic Campylobacter infections existed between humans and chickens in Morogoro municipality. Besides chickens, the role played by other domestic and wild animals in transmitting thermophilic Campylobacter infections to humans particularly children, should be closely examined. jejuni and 5% of C. coli were
Influence of haptoglobin genotypes on susceptibility to malaria and the effect of malaria parasitemia to the haptoglobin levels in children
(Sokoine university of agriculture., 2010) Alfred, Benigni
Haptoglobin gene encodes for an acute phase protein; Haptoglobin and is expressed in three different polymorphic forms, Hp1-1, Hp1-2 and Hp2-2. Various studies on pathogenesis of Malaria maintain that Haptoglobin polymorphism influences host susceptibility to Plasmodium falciparum infection. A number of studies provide evidence that, individuals carrying Hp2-2 genotype are resistant to both Malaria infection and development of severe disease although some have shown that no influence manifested by the genotype. The present study aims on drawing clear information on the effect of the individual host Haptoglobin genotype to Malaria, focusing on the more Malaria susceptible group; Children under five years of age. The study also investigated how Plasma Haptoglobin level in the three Haptoglobin genotypes is affected by Malaria infection. A cohort of 344 under five years of age children in Morogoro was followed for an average of one year, where each child attended clinic once in every four weeks. Haptoglobin genotyping was done by PCR while was done by indirect ELISA. Among the 344 children, the proportion of the three genotypes (Hp1-1; Hp1-2; Hp2-2) was 85; 171; 88 and this obeys the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. Microscopic examination of blood smears found that positive cases for Malaria were 11.7%, 11.6% and 12.4% for the genotypes Hp1-1, Hp1-2 and Hp2-2 respectively. Haptoglobin levels were significantly higher with negative parasitemia when compared with Hp1-1 (p=0.01). The variation in the level of plasma Haptoglobin level due to Malaria infection was significantly higher in Hp2-2 when compared to Hp1-1 when compared by unpaired t-test (p=0.03). This study concluded that at the age below five years the Haptoglobin genetic polymorphism neither influences susceptibility to Malaria infection nor the disease development after infection and the magnitude of drop in plasma Haptoglobin level due to Malaria infection is higher in Hp2-2 than in Hp1-1 individuals.

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