Theses and Dissertations Collection

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Improvement of complementary foods for infants and young children six to 23 months in seaweed farming livelihood zone, Micheweni district, Pemba
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2016) Suleiman, Suleiman Atik
Appropriate child feeding is the basis for a good nutritional status and healthy development, and a key factor for health in later life. In Tanzania, more than a third of children under-five years are affected by chronic malnutrition. In Zanzibar. 12% of children under-five are suffering from acute malnutrition. 4.5% are severely malnourished. The aim of the study was to improve the complementary foods for infants and young children aged six to 23 months in seaweed farming livelihood zone. This study was conducted in Micheweni district which covers about 407 km" and comprises 28 local administrative authority (shehia/village). A longitudinal (Panel survey) analytical design was used to establish baseline on nutritional situation, dietary assessment from three 24 hour recalls to identify nutrient gap and intervention to rectify the dietary inappropriateness escorted with monitoring for three consecutive months using panel data. Data collection tool was developed using ProPAN guideline. Data were analyzed using ProPAN-2 software with Epi-info version 3.5.4 (descriptive statistics) and SAS-8. 2004 (inferential statistics) using Duncan Multiple Range Test. Majority of children, expressed mild to moderate underweight (29.57%), (14.07%); wasting (20%) (11.38%); stunting (23.61%), (5.37%) and MUACZ (28.32%), (16.07%) respectively. Occupation was only socio-demographic factor that had shown significant association with nutritional indicator (WHZ). After intervention significant difference was found on weight and MUAC of children aged 12-23 months who were still breastfed. Meanwhile, 33.3% were able to meet minimum dietary diversity and 91.7% able to minimum meet meal frequency. Specific nutrients were below recommendation in pre-intervention but had shown significant difference in post intervention except for iron and zinc. The predominance of under-nutrition was intensified by inadequate knowledge and misconceptions about appropriate complementary foods. Monitoring at community level was fundamental in promoting recommended Infants and Young Child Feeding practices, along with adaptation of key messaging to address common misconceptions. District authority need synergic approach to advocate child care practices within communities by increasing demand in utilization of health services, promote optimal complementary feeding and dietary diversity through nutrition sensitive agriculture, specific nutrition counselling and cooking demonstration to enhance bioavailability.
Cowpea and its contribution to household food, nutrition and income in Mbarali and Njombe districts
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2005) Urio, Pia Andrew
This study investigated contribution of cowpeas to household food, nutrition and income in Mbarali and Njombe districts in the Southern Highlands of Tanzania. Data was collected using structured questionnaire in which random samples of 150 households, 30 traders and 30 street vendors from each district were interviewed. A checklist was used to key informants including the extension workers. The data was analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) programme. Descriptive statistics such as frequencies, percentages and means were used to make inferences about the studied households. Results showed that 99 and 51% of the respondents in Njombe and Mbarali districts cultivated cowpeas. Cowpeas were grown for food and cash in 72 and 67% of households in Njombe and Mbarali districts. Average of between 2.8-3.3 and 1.1-1.8 acres per household were under cowpea cultivation in Njombe and Mbarali districts, respectively. In Njombe district, where cowpea is more predominant than in Mbarali only 26 and 33% of the households produced sufficient cowpeas for own consumption, respectively. The study also showed that average sales of cowpeas per household per season were 255kg for Njombe and 147kg for Mbarali district. Surveyed traders sold more beans (104kg/day) compared to cowpeas (68kg/day). Street vendor customers preferred stiff porridge or rice with beans. Small businesses contributed about 52.3 and 78.5% of household income out of which 4 and 3% was income from cowpeas, respectively in Njombe and Mbarali districts. Over the four years, production, consumption and sales decreased, due to cropping system, higher prices of agricultural inputs, diseases and pests, lack of different recipes and lack of reliable markets for the produce. Given the potential cowpea has in reducing household malnutrition in resource-poor households this study recommends increased production of cowpeas and explore market opportunities because cowpeas have big market inside and outside the country.
Efficacy of ferric sodium ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid supplement in reducing iron deficiency anaemia among under five children in Morogoro
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2013) Shaluwa, Sarah Johnson
Use of high dose of iron (10 mg) supplement to control Iron Deficiency Anaemia (IDA) as recommended by WHO/FAO has been reported to increase severity of malaria in malaria endemic areas. This study was conducted in Mvomero district, one of malaria endemic areas in Tanzania to determine the efficacy of a low dose ferric sodium ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid (Fe Na-EDTA) supplement to reduce anaemia among children aged 6-36 months. A total of 1021 children were screened for their weights, heights and blood haemoglobin concentrations. Out of 1021 children, 217 met the eligibility criteria of being mildly anaemic with blood hemoglobin concentration ranging from >7 to < 9g/dl. At baseline, children in the study group were screened for Hb and malaria parasites and all children received anti-helfninthes drug- 600 mg of melbendazol (except children under the age of one year). Study children were divided into two groups of 108 each. Group one received the low-dose iron (5 mg of 2.5 mg Fe-lactate and 2.5 mg Fe- Na-EDTA) while the other group received the high dose of iron (10 mg Iron lactate). The children received the supplement for a period of 8 weeks. Results showed that, there was a significant (p<0.05) improvement in the Hb concentration for both groups receiving low and high doses of iron. Likewise, there was no significant difference (p > 0.05) in the Hb concetrations between the group receiving 10 mg iron lactate and the one receiving 5 mg Na-EDTA (2.5 mg ferrous lactate and 2.5 mg EDTA). The average Hb concentration for the group receiving high dose iron was 11.1 ± 2.0 g/dl while for the group receiving low dose iron the mean Hb concentration was 11.0 ± 2.9 g/dl. It was concluded from this study that, consumption of low dose iron (combination of 2.5 mg sodium-ferric EDTA and 2.5 mg of iron lactate) was just as effective in controlling IDA as consuming high dose iron (10 mg of iron lactate). Low dose of Fe-containing EDTA may therefore be adopted in anaemia control programs especially in malaria endemic areas. It is recommended that, in order for the iron deficiency control programs to be effective, there must be a concurrent control of malaria and helminthes.
Knowledge, attitude and practices oe infant feeding options in the context of PMTCT of HIV: a case study of Kinondoni - Dar es salaam
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2008) Nzelu, Stella Chambo
1'hc study was designed to assess the knowledge, attitude and practices of HIV positive mothers on infant feeding options in the context of PMTCT of HIV. The focus of the study was in clinics situated in Kinondoni Municipality in Dar es Salaam City. Interviews using questionnaires were used to collect data from sampled respondents. The interviews were held at the PMTCT clinics and followed by observations al homes. Data collected were analyzed by using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) computer programme version 12.0. The study noted that HIV positive mothers practiced two common options of feeding their infants after delivery. These were exclusive breastfeeding for less than six months and no breast feeding (i.e. exclusive use of replacement milk). However, low rates of adherence to instructions during preparation were also noted. More than 90% had poor adherence and only 7.8% followed correctly all the required procedures. About 86% showed poor hygienic practices. Furthermore, the study revealed that the PMTCT programme was neither performing enough demonstrations to mothers on the appropriate feeding methods nor making sufficient follow ups. Health workers (97.8 %) were reported to be the major source of the information. Services from other institutions other than PMTCT clinics, such as provision of replacement milk, were not provided to most of the respondents (87.7%). Constraints like stigma, poor affordability of replacement milk were noted to have some effect on the initial decision for the infant feeding option. The study recommends sensitization of key community members to support the HIV-positive mothers. There is a need for placement of a nutritionist in every PMTCT clinic to work on dietary and feeding issues together with conducting regular training to counselors on infant feeding methods.
Microbiological and chemical quality of kayabo a salted sun-dried nile perch lates niloticus from Lake Victoria, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2017) Mwasulama, Nuru Edgar
Fish processing companies in Tanzania are basically for the export market with strict control and monitoring of the food safety hazards. The major processors of fish for the domestic market are small-scale processors often with limited knowledge on proper handling of fish, inadequate hygienic facilities, lack of adequate raw materials which compels them to purchase rejects (undersize, poor quality fish and fish frames) from fish processing companies. The use of rejects and poor quality raw materials associated with inadequate handling and processing conditions could result into food safety problems and endanger the public health. This study was conducted to assess the handling practices as well as microbiological and chemical quality of salted sun-dried Lates niloticus (Kayabo) from Lake Victoria, Tanzania. Structured observation checklist was used to collect information from thirty Kayabo processors on the product handling practices along the processing chain. Samples were collected from processors from two Municipalities of Mwanza City namely Nyamagana (Kanyama) and Ilemela (Mwaloni). Analytical samples for microbiological analyses were prepared according to Andrew and Hammac (US - FDA BAM, 2001). Enumeration of total viable counts (TVC), total coliforms, E. coli, S. aureus were respectively performed according to ISO 4833:2003, ISO 4831:2006, ISO 7251: 2005, ISO 6888 — 3: 2003, whereas detection of L. monocytogenes was done according to ISO 11290-1:1996/Amd 1: 2004 methods. The total volatile basic nitrogen (TVB-N) of Kayabo was extracted following the European official method (EC) 2074/2005. To assay nitrogen specifically generated by the trimethylamine (TMA), distillation method was applied in presence of formaldehyde. Moisture content was determined by AOAC method 985.14 (AOAC, 1995). Hierarchical cluster analysis was conducted on the handling practices of Kayabo from the two locations. Three clusters were obtained; cluster I (15 companies), cluster II (10 companies) and cluster III (5 companies). All cluster I processors were from Kanyama, whereas the rest of clusters contained processors from Mwaloni. The study showed that, Kayabo value chain was associated with poor quality raw material, inadequate handling practices, lack of food grade processing equipment, poor sanitation, lack of training and education on hygiene as well as poor packaging and storage conditions. All clusters exhibited TVC, 5. aureus, total coliforms with values ranging from 2.08 - 8.68 Log CFU/g, 2.36 - 2.56 Log CFU/g, 0.6 - 1.36 Log MPN/g, respectively. Only TVC indicated significant difference (P<0.05) among the clusters. However, E. coli and L. monocytogenes were not detected in all samples tested. Kayabo from the two locations varied significantly (P<0.05) in moisture content, TVB- N and TMA-N contents. Samples from Mwaloni had highest mean scores of moisture content (42.8%) compared to Kanyama (27.4%). The moisture content of Kayabo from Mwaloni exceeded the 30% cut-off point for the dried salted fishery products. All samples from Mwaloni had TMA-N and TVB-N values within the acceptable limit. The higher concentration of TVB-N and TMA-N recorded beyond the freshness scale from majority of Kayabo samples from Kanyama location gave an indication that the products were made from the raw materials which had started to spoil. The study showed that preservation of Kayabo with salt has varied effect on both quality and safety parameters. The fact that salt can inhibit growth and proliferation of spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms i.e. L. monocytogenes, S. aureus and E. coli, it is therefore recommended that it is appropriately used. However, since growth of some spoilage microorganisms was observed; it is further recommended to improve the handling practices by using cold storage from the fish supply sources to the processing units, hygiene training and education, inspection of Kayabo processing facilities and operations, adequate drying of Kayabo, appropriate final product packaging, labeling and storage in order to improve significantly safety and quality of Kayabo.
Health risk assessment due to exposure to acrylamide through consumption of potato chips in Kinondoni municipality Dar es salaam, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2018) Mwingira, John
A cross-sectional study was carried out in Kinondoni Municipality from November 2015 to February 2016 to assess health risks associated with exposure to acrylamide through consumption of ready-to-eat potato chips. A total of 600 respondents were randomly selected and interviewed on consumption of ready-to-eat potato chips using semi structured questionnaire. In addition, 100 ready-to-eat potato chips samples were collected to determine the presence and concentration of acrylamide. Monte Carlo Simulation was used to estimate exposure to acrylamide. Margin of Exposure (MOE) approach was used to characterize the risk based on the No Observed Adverse Effect Level (NOAEL) of 200 pg/kg.bw/day and benchmark dose lower confidence limit for a 10% extra risk of tumours (BMDLio) of 180 pg/kg.bw/day for Harderian glands in mice . The levels of acrylamide in ready-to-eat potato chips ranged from 103 pg/kg to 1056 pg/kg with the average value of 326.92 ± 173.43 pg/kg. Per capita consumption of ready-to-eat potato chips given as mean and the 95th percentile were 170.98g/day/person and 306 g/person/day, respectively. The estimated dietary intakes of acrylamide for mean and 95lh percentile were 0.79pg/kg bw/day and 1.56 pg/kg bw/day, respectively. MOEs calculated using both NOAEL and BMDLio were 253 and 228 for mean exposure and 128 and 115 for 95,h percentile exposures, respectively. These MOEs indicates a human health concern on acrylamide for Kinondoni population aged between 15-70 years. Chips vendors should be educated on measure to be taken in order to reduce acrylamide formation in ready-to-eat potato chips during processing. Also, efforts should be directed towards conducting a total diet study so as to establish the most accurate data on acrylamide exposure to the consumers.
Assessment of nutritive value of commiphora swynnertonii and its effects on cholesterol levels in rattus rattus
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2011) Simon, Sikitu
Experimental studies to determine the chemical composition of the Commiphora swynnertonii as well as its effect in plasma cholesterol levels and weight changes in Rattus rattus. A total of 24 rats were used in the dose and time dependent experiments of resin, C. swynnertonii at (0 mg/kg, 50 mg/kg, 100 mg/kg and 200 mg/kg) on daily basis for 21 days. Six samples of root and stem bark were used in the proximate, selected minerals and heavy metals analysis by using AO AC (1995). Weekly weight measurement and plasma cholesterol levels were evaluated for each R. rattus. The results showed that the roots and stem bark of C. swynnertonii had significant difference in chemical composition (p 0.05). Among the minerals analyzed Magnesium was the most abundant (996.30-1810.01 mg/lOOg). This plant was found to contain high fibre and carbohydrates. Results shows higher concentration of lead in stem bark (0.25 ppm) than in the root (<0.01 ppm) and the concentration of cadmium in the root and stem bark 0.01 ppm and 0.001 ppm respectively and for mercury the concentration was < 0.01 ppm for both roots and stem bark. There were significant differerence (p < 0.05) on cholestrol level and weight between the treated and the control groups. Commiphora swynnertonii resin lowered cholesterol level by 54%, 76% and 79% and weight changes by 18%, 31% and 23% for the exposed rats at concentrations of 50 mg/kg, 100 mg/kg and 200 mg/kg respectively and at the higher doses showed side effect including diarrhoea and death. Based on the results, C. swynnertonii has shown potential important medicinal plant as it contain some anti-cholesterol properties reduces weight and induces diarrhoea even at low doses.
Factors that influence infant feeding choices and practices among HIV positive mothers in Musoma municipal
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2011) Albert, Juliet
The choice of infant feeding method is important for HIV mothers in order to optimize the chances of survival of their infants and to minimize the risk of HIV transmission. The aim of this study was to investigate factors influencing infant feeding choices of methods and practices among HIV positive pregnant mothers in Musoma municipal. A cross sectional design involving a total of 84 HIV positive mothers attending antenatal clinic under PMTCT programme was employed. Structured interviews were administered to all mothers to be studied at ANC (antenatal clinic) while semi-structured interviews were administered to few selected mothers from the sample. Observation method was also employed throughout the study. The choices made were exclusive breast feeding for six months (54.8%), exclusive breast feeding for three months (29.8%) and exclusive replacement feeding (14.2%). There were no significant association (p-value > 0.05) between education level of respondents and choices of infant feeding. Major factors influencing infant feeding choices were economic factors (35.7%). advice from health workers (20.2%), advice from friends and other relatives (19.0%) as well as fear of transmitting HIV to their infants (7.8 %). Misconceptions were noted among mothers knowledge related to HIV, MTCT, PMTCT and infant feeding. There was some discrepancy between infant feeding choice which were made before delivery and actual practices after delivery. Major challenges faced mothers in practicing method of their choice were financial constraints, insufficient milk as well as health related problems among their infants. It is therefore recommended that governments and donors should economically empower HIV positive mothers to improve their economic status as well as to educate them on how best to practice safe breast feeding since it is the most preferred infant feeding choice. The whole community should be educated on PMTCT programmes so that can support mothers to make infant feeding choices.
Nutrient composition of complementary foods for children in Temeke district
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2009) Ntwenya, Julius
The provision of nutrient-dense complementary foods is essential to ensure an infant's nutrient requirements are met. Yet often, relative to recommendations, traditional complementary foods have low levels of nutrients, suggesting a need, for improvement to ensure dietary adequacy. In this study, nutrient composition of locally available dishes used as complementary foods for children aged 6-24 months was determined so as to provide suitable recommendations that will ensure sustainable improvement of the overall nutritional adequacy of complementary foods and well being of children in Tanzania. Data were collected from 100 interviewed caregivers using structured questionnaires and through laboratory analysis of 100 different complementary foods. Standard AOAC methods were used to determine nutrient composition. The findings show that, maize porridge (71%), composite flour porridge (55%) and mashed polatoes/mashed bananas (41%) are the main complementary foods prepared for young children in the study area. The proximate composition data showed that maize porridge provided energy of 282.59±59.54 Kcal/100g, composite flour porridge provided 319.13±61.31 Kcal/100g and mashed potato provided 243.50±53.56 Kcal/lOOg dry matter. The micronutrient composition data showed that the phosphorous, copper, iron and zinc content in mg/100g dry matter were 183.09±74.52, 0.37±0.12, 5.14±2.24, and 0.51±0.22 g for composite Hour porridge, and 164.00±l06.25, 0.32±0.13, 4.15±1.68 and 0.42±0.17 for mashed potato/mashed banana; whereas 59.33±42.21, 0.28±0.19, 2.65±1.56 and 0.27±0.16 were contained in maize flour porridge. A comparison on what the foods could provide and what is the recommended daily dietary requirements show that the amount of food consumed are inadequate to meet daily body needs. This is due to bulkness of the complementary foods. Furthermore, the nutrient composition data suggest that ensuring a nutritionally adequate complementary feeding diet based on traditional foods alone is difficult. It could therefore be inferred that mothers need a guidance to improve traditional foods through combinations with other foods available to them locally.
Utilization of bean-maize composite meal to improve motor performance and nutritional status of hiv+children in Morogoro, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2007) Mwankemwa, Jamila
A four months study was done to investigate the efficacy of fortified bean-maize composite meal in improving nutritional and motor performance of 117 HIV+ children aged between 24 and 180 months, who were receiving medical and/or home-based care at WAVUMO and Faraja Trust Fund in Morogoro, Tanzania. The subjects received a bean-maize composite product (50 g per day) for a period of four months. Physical measurements (weight, height, LBM) and motor performance measurements (speed, power, coordination, grip strength and cardiovascular endurance) of the subjects were taken at baseline and monthly for four months. Information on dietary intake and use of ARV medication was also collected. Results showed that 6.25% of the study children aged between 24 and 108 months were wasted, 27.14% were underweight and 18.75% were stunted at the baseline visit. After feeding the proportion of wasting, underweight and stunting had decreased substantially. BMI-for-age of the children aged 109 and 180 months (N=70) increased slightly during the supplementation period. Fat mass and lean body mass increased slightly (p>0.05) during the supplementation. The results further revealed the significant improvement (p<0.01) in the grip strengths among study children. Power increased significantly (p<0.01) with age. Speed declined significantly (p<0.05) with time of supplemental feeding. Significant decline (p<0.05) in cardiovascular endurance, power and coordination was observed after feeding. Daily food intakes for children were below the RDI for energy, protein and other nutrients. Frequency of feeding was either two meals (29.2%) or three meals (71.8%) per day. 7.3% (N=l 17) of the children were taking ARV medication. This study concluded that, the bean-maize composite product was effective in improving the nutritional status and motor performance of IIIV+ children and thus recommended for promotion. The general public, NGOs and the government should support nutrition based initiatives taken to care and support HIV+ children.
Concentration and intake of macro, trace, and toxic elements by infants through milk and baby foods in Morogoro municipality, Tanzania.
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2012) Ngilisho,Maria
Excessive or too little minerals pose health effects for infants. Since the infancy period is the most critical time with respect to nutrition, there is a need to know’ the actual concentration of trace and toxic elements in their foods during this stage. This study aimed to determine the levels of calcium, potassium, zinc, copper, lead and in Morogoro Municipal and intake of these mineral elements by infants. Human milk was collected from 41 mothers at different postpartum periods, cow milk was bought from dairy farms and infant formulas were purchased from shops. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry flame mode w'as used to analyze 97 samples. Intake of macro and micro elements were assessed for compliance with Recommended Daily Intake by World Health Organization. Mean elemental concentration in the seven days postpartum was higher and lowest in the 9-months postpartum. Human-, cowand tinned baby- milk showed significant differences (p 0.05) in all elements except for lead. Concentrations in different brands of baby foods were significantly 0.05). Mineral content in human milk was found to be below recommendations. Cow milk had high Ca and K and tinned baby milk had high K. and Cu. Calcium in baby foods matched recommendations, K was high, Zn and Cu were absent. Pb and Cd were below permissible levels. There was a relationship between K concentration in human milk with maternal age and marginally with wheat consumption (p = 0.050). This study concludes that concentration of toxic elements in milk and tinned baby foods in Morogoro Municipal are low hence safe for infant consumption. Conversely, tinned baby foods should be fortified with Zn and Cu to ensure infants consume enough for their growth and development.
Nutritional status and metabolic risk factors among university students in Morogoro and Dodoma regions
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2024) Mgetta, Neema John
The transition from adolescence to adulthood coupled with the demands of academic life often leads to significant changes in dietary patterns and lifestyle behaviors among university students. These changes can have profound implications for their nutritional status and metabolic health. The lifestyle choices due to independence increases the incidence of chronic illnesses for this sub-population. University is an opportune setting in the transition from youth to adulthood and provides a chance to influence healthy habits and good nutritional status. University students are important group to target in influencing future health-promoting habits, prevention and management of obesity which is associated with the development of non-communicable diseases (NCDs). However, information on the nutritional status and metabolic risk factors of university students is scarce. Therefore, findings from the present study could serve as a stepping stone in enhancing the nutritional and healthy quality of university students. The cross-sectional study was conducted among 247 university students in Mzumbe and Saint John‟s Universities in Morogoro and Dodoma regions respectively. Two Tanzania Commission for Universities (TCU) accredited universities present based on agro-ecological zones. Data were collected through face-to-face interviews using a pre-tested structured questionnaire that included the socio-demographic characteristics of the population, food-frequency questionnaire and dietary habits. Anthropometric measurements (weight, height and waist circumference) were collected as well as the metabolic risk bio-markers (blood lipid profile, blood pressure and blood glucose) by trained medical personnel. The study commenced after receiving approval from National Health Research Committee of the National Institute for Medical Research. Permission to conduct this study was also sought from each university‟s authorities. Data were managed and analysed using IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows (Version 26.0. IBM Corp, 2011, Armonk, NY). Descriptive statistics were generated for each variable. The distribution of continuous variables was tested for normality using box plots and-Q plots and the Shapiro-Wilk test. Multivariate analysis (Multiple linear regression) was used to assess the determinants of metabolic risk factors among variables. A sub- sample of 118 students was drawn from the total study cohort for metabolic risk factors assessment. Students from each university were selected randomly; 65 students from Mzumbe University and 53 students from Saint Johns' university. The study findings revealed the overall prevalence of overweight (44%) and obesity (11.1%) in the study population. University students with a high dietary diversity score (consumed ≥7 food groups) were linked with central obesity (P=0.04). The risk of morbidity (central obesity) was significantly associated (P=0.000) with being female and age above 25 years (P=0.001) in both universities. Students at Saint John‟s University were significantly at higher risk of being overweight (P=0.031) than their counterparts. Findings from the assessed metabolic risk factors namely central obesity, Low-density lipoprotein (LDL), triglycerides (TG) and total cholesterol (TC) revealed that LDL was the most prevalent metabolic risk factor among students in both universities. The LDL levels were (20.3%), (13.6%), (11%) and (14.4%) for above optimal, borderline high, high and very high respectively. Students from Mzumbe University were significantly associated with hypertriglyceridemia (P=0.000). The susceptibility to LDL were found among students who were receiving scholarship (β=21.83, SE=10.4, p=0.1) and those with high dietary diversity (β=5.731, SE=3.14, p=0.1). In conclusion, findings from this study revealed that university students are at a risk of being overweight, generally obese and centrally obese. This sub-population is also prone to a cluster of metabolic risk factors, which according to the findings include elevated triglyceride levels, elevated low-density lipoprotein levels and central obesity. This indicates the necessity of enhancing the availability of exercise and sports facilities, healthier food outlets and implementing nutrition education intervention to empower students in making healthy life style choices.
Erratic weather condition and its implications for household food production: farmers perceptions in Moshi District
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2011) Kundy, Florence Callist
Farmers in Moshi District prioritize drought as their major productivity-reducing problem, while scientists identify soil degradation as a major threat. The question that needs to be addressed is how farmers perceive drought. Insight into farmers’ perceptions of drought could be the missing link towards increased and sustainable production. During October 2010 and February 2011, a study was conducted in Kilimanjaro Region Moshi District, at Kirua Vunjo West and Kirua Vunjo South Wards, in the villages of Mabungo, Uchira, Uparo, Iwa, Kwamare and Nduoni in Moshi. The study included questionnaires with mainly open-ended questions (n=120) and in-depth interviews with farmers and extension workers. Collected data were analysed using various methods including; Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS 16) software (SPSS, 2006), Descriptive statistics (frequencies and percentages) were used with regards to the distribution of the adequacy responses and Likert-scale was used in soliciting attitude of farmers. Farmers saw drought in a broader perspective than that of deficient rainfall. Drought indicators were area specific. Farmers recognized differences in drought vulnerability between soil types, location and state of land, land management practices and farmer types. Drought risk was perceived to have increased. Farmers' perceptions can be related to the scientific concept of agricultural drought. Since the amount of rainfall cannot be influenced, the efficiency of the rains can be a focal point for addressing farmers’ concerns about drought. Any viable strategy to reduce farmers’ vulnerability to drought and to improve productivity should be integrated into farmers’ existing strategies to adapt to and cope with ecological insecurity.
Influence of school food environment on eating behaviours and nutritional status of primary school children (6-13 years) in Dodoma
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2024-05) Kilandeka, Vivian Richard
Malnutrition among school-aged children has significant consequences for their health, cognitive development, and overall educational achievement. Rapid shifts in the availability and affordability of less nutritious foods in food environments have contributed to the dual challenges of malnutrition. There is growing global interest in understanding how food environments contribute to this double burden of malnutrition. This study aimed to assess the impact of the school food environment on the eating habits and nutritional well-being of primary school children aged 6 to 13 years in Dodoma region. Specific objectives were first: to evaluate the nutritional status of school-age children and examine how socio- economic, demographic, and environmental factors influence their nutritional well-being; second, to investigate how the school food environments affect the eating behaviours of primary school children in both public and private schools in Dodoma region. A cross- sectional study involving 248 pupils was conducted in eight primary schools in Dodoma region. Four schools were chosen from Chamwino district (a rural setting), including two public and two private schools. The other four schools were located in Dodoma urban district (an urban setting), comprising of two government schools and two private schools. The study also involved eight head teachers and eight health/food teachers, who were purposefully selected from the eight participating primary schools. Anthropometric measurements were made following the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines to assess stunting, thinness, underweight, and overweight/obesity. Socio-demographic data were collected from pupils using structured questionnaires. School administrators, including head teachers and health/food teachers, provided information on the physical, political, and socio-cultural aspects of the school food environment. Data on eating behaviours were obtained through structured questionnaires and food frequency questionnaires to assess students' dietary patterns over a period of seven days. Additionally, an observation checklist was used to gather information on the availability and accessibility of foods consumed by the school children. Data analysis was performed by using the WHO AnthroPlus v1.0.4 software and IBM SPSS Statistics 26v. Descriptive statistics, such as frequencies and percentages, were calculated. Regression models were used to explore the determinants of nutritional status, reporting both crude (COR) and adjusted odds ratios (AOR). Multilevel modeling was employed to assess individual-level variance in eating behaviours and examine the association between the school food environment and dietary behaviours of children. Prevalence rates among surveyed pupils were as follows: stunting (10.5%), underweight (3.6%), thinness (2.8%), and overweight/obesity (10.1%). Stunting was more common in boys (13.2%) than in girls (8.2%), and it increased with age. Underweight was higher in public schools (8.2%) than in private schools (3.2%). Thinness was more prevalent in public schools (85.7%) than in private schools (14.3%), particularly in rural areas (57.1%) and among younger children (aged 6-9 years, 57.1%). Overweight/obesity was more common among girls (90.1%) than boys. Urban schools had a higher prevalence of overweight/obesity (90.3%) compared to rural schools (89.5%), and private schools had a higher prevalence (95.2%) than public schools (84.7%). Pupils in urban areas were more likely to be overweight/obese than those in rural settings. After adjusting for student characteristics, the school environment accounted for a small proportion of the variance in eating behaviours, ranging from 11.3% to 11.6% for carbohydrate- rich foods, 12.6% to 11.4% for protein-rich foods, 20.3% to 19.4% for vitamins and mineral-rich foods, and 11.0% to 10.1% for lipids and sugar-rich foods. In model 2, controlling for other factors, protein-rich and lipid and sugar-rich foods intake were significantly related to the death of a parent, while vitamins and mineral-rich foods intake were significantly related to the number of adults in the household. None of the investigated school food environmental factors were associated with the children's reported intake of carbohydrate-rich foods, protein-rich foods, vitamin and mineral-rich foods, or lipids and sugar-rich foods. These findings suggested that,
Satisfaction and compliance to recommended management practices among type 2 diabetes patients in Morogoro Municipality, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2024-05) Bofu, Hasna R.
The prevalence of type 2 diabetes mellitus has been increasing primarily due to the rising of risk factors such as sedentary lifestyles and unhealthy eating habits, resulting to overweight and obesity. Diabetes- related complications are the major causes of morbidity and mortality among people with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Changes in lifestyles and dietary patterns are essential for the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus, including regular physical exercises, smoking cessation, weight management, and diet control, which help to mitigate the long- term effects of diabetes. Patient counseling has been identified as an important means to enhance patients' knowledge about risk factors, lifestyle modifications, and diabetes-related complications, which can influence adherence to recommended management practices. Little is known on counselling practices, satisfaction of diabetes related health care services received and adherence to recommended prevention and management practices among type 2 diabetes patients. Thus, the present study aimed to evaluate counseling practices, challenges and satisfaction with the services provided among type 2 diabetes patients. It also assessed compliance to recommended management practices for prevention and management of the disease related complications in selected health facilities in Morogoro Municipality, Tanzania. A hospital- based cross-sectional study was conducted from February to May 2023 among 140 patients, including those diagnosed with type 2 diabetes for at least 3 months and receiving healthcare services in selected diabetes clinics. Two health facilities with diabetes clinics which are Sabasaba Health Centre and Morogoro Regional Referral Hospital, were purposively selected to represent public health facilities with diabetes clinics. Data were collected through face-to-face interviews using a structured questionnaire that included patients' characteristics. Additionally, a previously validated Summary of Diabetes Self-care Activities questionnaire was used to assess patients' compliance with recommended prevention and management practices, and a Diabetes Clinic Satisfaction Questionnaire was used to assess services satisfaction. Data were analysed using Statistical Package for Service Solutions, version 25. Descriptive statistics and appropriate significance tests such as mean, frequencies, percent and standard deviations (SD) were obtained. Multivariable logistic regression analysis was employed to identify factors influencing services satisfaction and those that are associated with compliance with recommended prevention and management practices. The study commenced after receiving ethical approval from National Health Research Committee of the National Institute for Medical Research. Permission to conduct this study was also sought from the President's Office Regional Authority and Local Government, as well as the respective regional, district, and health facility authorities. The mean age of the respondents was 59±12 years, with 65% (n=91) being females, and 62% (n=87) having completed primary-level education. Almost all respondents 96% (n=135) acknowledged receiving advice on medication and healthy diet. Advice on adopting a healthy lifestyle was not mandatory, with approximately one in four respondents never having received counseling on either alcohol intake or tobacco use. Nearly half of the respondents (49%, n=68) expressed satisfaction with the services offered. There was a significant association between patient satisfaction and the duration of living with type 2 diabetes mellitus (AOR 2.2, 95% CI: 1.1-4.4), marital status (AOR 2.1, 95% CI: 1.2-4.8), and waiting time to receive services in the healthy facility (AOR 0.76, 95% CI: 0.6-0.9). Diabetes services were mostly limited to large patient-load and shortage of trained healthcare providers, private space and time, as well as lack of guidelines and protocol for counseling. Findings also revealed that among the 140 patients, 91.4% (n=128) exhibited poor or unsatisfactory self-care practices, with an overall mean of 3.81±2.08 days per week for diabetes management. Self-care practices with good or satisfactory performance included non-smoking, not drinking alcohol, and using prescribed medication, while unsatisfactory performance was observed on the practices of self-monitoring of blood glucose and physical activity. Multiple regression analysis indicated that having co-morbidities (AOR 4.5, 95% CI: 1.14-18.02) and being employed (AOR 4.4, 95% CI: 1.25-15.44) were independently predictive of adherence to self-care practices. Generally, this study shows moderate satisfaction with counseling practices and services, as well as poor compliance to recommended prevention for complications and management practices. Self-monitoring of blood glucose, physical exercise, and dietary practices were the least practiced aspects, which could potentially increase the risk of complications among patients with type 2 diabetes. The government through the Ministry of Health and other stakeholders should ensure the formulation of clear protocol and guidelines for counseling and diabetes prevention and management. It is further suggested that recommended practices should be integrated into existing healthcare systems to ensure that they become a routine part of care.
Behavioural determinants influencing the purchase of imported and locally made apparel among consumers in Dar es salaam, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2022) Kereth, Gudila Ancelm
Behavioural determinants; namely cultural, social, personal, psychological and demographics influence consumers apparel purchase. However, there is scarce information about behavioural determinants and purchase of apparel among consumers in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Hence, this study needs to explore the behavioural determinants influencing the purchase of imported and locally made apparel among consumers in Dar es Salaam in Tanzania. The objectives of this study were: identifying the consumer demographic determinants that influence purchase of imported and locally made apparel; establishing the consumer purchase of imported and locally made apparel and examining the influence of behavioural determinants on the choice of apparel, choice of shopping outlets, quantity, apparel expenditure, frequency to purchase apparel and a model for behavioural determinants. The study adopted a cross-sectional analytical design. It involved a sampled population of 422 respondents (206 males and 216 females) aged above 18 years. Purposive sampling was used to select shopping outlets, while a systematic random sampling was used to select consumers for interview at the main outlets. Primary data were collected using a questionnaire and an interview schedule. Quantitative data were analysed using descriptive statistics, chi-square, logistic regression and multiple linear regression while qualitative data were analysed based on themes and sub themes of the related variables. The results showed that 88.1% of the respondents purchased imported apparel of which 53.3% purchased apparel from second-hand apparel markets. The findings revealed that males were 1.693 less likely to purchase locally made apparel than females (/?=0.001). Respondents aged 18-25 ( jj -Q.OQ 1), 26-35 (p=0.018) and 36-45 (p=0.004) were less likely to purchase locally made apparel compared to respondents aged above 56 years. Moreover, respondents with Secondary (p=0.004), Certificate and Diploma (/?=0.029) education were less likely to purchase imported apparel compared to respondents with Bachelor degrees. The findings also revealed that 45% of behavioural determinants influenced respondents to purchase apparel. Cultural beliefs, social values, ethical and religious values, social status, social media, apparel loyalty, self-concept, perception and respondents' lifestyle were significant led respondents to purchase apparel. Cultural determinants were significant and less likely influenced respondents to go to shopping malls, second-hand apparel markets, boutiques and apparel shops to purchase apparel. Social, personal and psychological determinants significantly influenced respondents to choose shopping malls, apparel shops and second-hand markets to purchase apparel. Behavioural detenninants significantly influenced respondents on the quantity, apparel expenditure and the frequency of purchase of apparel (/?<0.05). A model for behavioural determinants was developed based on demographics, cultural, social, personal and psychological variables to provide insight towards the purchase of apparel. The study recommends that retailers should study the apparel market and supply apparel based on consumers' preferences. It is suggested that the government should set a policy intended to promote locally made apparel to public sectors, parastatal organisations and other NGOs to to wear on every Friday of the working day and on the national public events.
Food marketing strategies and prevalence of overweight and obesity among primary school children in Morogoro region, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2023) Muhomba E. S
World Health Organization (2018) defines overweight and obesity as “abnormal or excessive fat accumulation that presents a risk to health’’. Recent reports show that the number of overweight and obese children worldwide has risen tenfold in the past four decades and if the current trends continue, more children will be obese than the moderately or severely underweight. This trend is rising with urbanization, changes in lifestyles and social economic transition. This study examined food marketing strategies and prevalence and determinants of overweight and obesity among school children of age 7-12 years old in urban and rural areas of Morogoro region, Tanzania. The specific objectives were to determine the prevalence and determinants of overweight and obesity among school children and to identify marketing and promotion strategies used by food vendors in school environment. A cross sectional study was conducted to a total of 335 parent/caregiver- child pairs, of whom 165 were from Kilosa (rural) and 170 from Morogoro (urban) districts. The main sampling unit was registered primary schools which were stratified according to ownership, whether private or government, and sampled separately. A total of four private and four public schools were sampled, two from each of the categories in each of the locations. The study also involved 32 food outlets that were purposively selected from the eight selected primary schools based on kind of foods sold. Weight and height were measured using standard procedures and Body Mass Index (BMI) for age was determined. Socio-demographic information was collected from parents using structured questions. Information on food marketing and promotion strategies were collected from food vendors through questionnaire and data for food availability and factors influencing purchasing behavior were obtained from the children through structured questions. Available foods were categorized into four groups that include; unprocessed or minimally processed foods, processed culinary ingredient, processed foods and ultra-processed foods. In addition, observation checklist was used to collect information on food availability, marketing and promotion strategies used by food vendors. Data was analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSSTM) version 21 software; whereby descriptive statistics such as frequencies and percentage were calculated and a regression model was used to explore the determinants of overweight and obesity in which both crude (COR) and adjusted odds ratio (AOR) were reported. Chi-square test was used to test significant difference between foods available in rural and urban school environment. The study commenced after receiving ethical approval from the National Institute for Medical Research and from Sokoine University of Agriculture. Permission to conduct the study was also sought from the Regional Administrative Officer, the respective District Executive Officers and the head teachers of the selected schools. The results showed that age of the studied children ranged from 7 to 12 years, while those of the parents/caregivers ranged from 18 to 72 years. About 19% (n=63) of the school children were overweight or obese, while 3.9% (n=13) were underweight. The prevalence of overweight and obesity was higher among private school students than those in public schools 24.8% (n=36) vs 14.2% (n=27) and more or less similar prevalence were observed among rural (17.6%, n=34) and urban (20.0%, n=29) areas. In a multivariate analysis, eating breakfast before going to school was associated with overweight and obesity (AOR 2.23, 95% CI: 1.06-4.68). Other factors associated with overweight and obesity were school type (AOR 1.19, 95% CI: 1.55-2.60), household daily income (AOR 1.88, 95% CI: 1.68-3.15) , and provided with money to spend at school (AOR 2.89, 95% CI: 1.76-4.11). On the other hand, the findings for marketing and promotion strategies used by food vendors in school environment revealed that there was higher proportion of processed or deep fried foods such as potato balls, cowpea and rice cakes, samosa, and bans in rural areas (60%) compared to urban areas (40%). There was also higher proportion of ultra- processed foods such as carbonated soft drinks, cookies, candies, chocolate and ice lollies in urban areas (60.8%) compared to rural areas (39.2%). The most consumed and purchased foods around schools were corn snacks (chama), potato balls, carbonated soft drinks, sweet ice-lollies, candies, chocolates and ice cream. The most common marketing and promotion strategies used around schools were posters, price reduction and packaging. Feeling hungry, food price, environment and peer pressure were the factors contributing to purchasing behavior for foods sold around the school premises. Generally, the prevalence of overweight and obesity among primary school children in Morogoro region was high particularly among children enrolled in private primary schools. Household daily income, provision of breakfast before going to school and being given money to spend at school were the determinants of overweight and obesity. Ultra-processed foods were available in urban and rural schools. Marketing and promotion strategies exist in both rural and urban areas where the commonly marketed foods were carbonated soft drinks, candies, corn snacks (chama), potatoes balls and ice cream. Monitoring of children’s nutrition status in schools is very crucial so as to build the foundation for healthy future generation. Therefore, the government should ensure provision of school meals and monitoring of foods sold around the schools. Also children should be provided with nutrition education to make sure that they are aware of healthy food choices.
Nutrition governance and accountability in implementing nutrition services in Morogoro Urban And Rural District Councils, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2023-04) Kawishe Ester C.
Background: Nutrition governance and accountability have gained importance in Tanzania and the rest of Africa as a result of strong initiatives to end all forms of malnutrition by 2030. This study aimed at assessing nutrition governance and accountability in the implementation of nutrition services. Methodology: The assessment was based on nutrition budget planning and spending, coordination of nutrition through the meetings of Council Multisectoral Steering Committee on Nutrition (CMSCN) and Development Committee at Ward and Village/Mtaa levels. The assessment also looked at the way in which nutrition data and information were collected, accessed and used in informing policy implementation. The study was conducted in Morogoro Municipal Council (urban) and Morogoro District Council (rural) within Morogoro region in Tanzania. A total of 140 respondents were reached, who were the members CMSCN and development committee at ward and village/ mtaa. Data were collected through face-to-face interviews using semi-structured questionnaires. Other method of getting data included observation and documents review. Data analysis involved mainly qualitative approach such as the content analysis. Information sought from the respondents included their opinions and understanding of nutrition in budgeting, information sharing for accountability and planning. Results: It has been found out that adherence to nutrition budgeting guideline of allocating 1000 Tanzania shillings per every child below the age of five years was low in Morogoro District Council (rural) in comparison to Morogoro Municipal Council (urban). Possible reasons could be the relatively lower revenue collection as well as lack of accountability, commitment and knowledge of consequences of poor nutrition. Moreover, coordination of nutrition based on the terms of reference that were set by the President’s Office-Regional Administration and Local Government (PO-RALG) in 2018 was not adhered fully at all levels, but the situation was worse at sub-ward level (Village and Mtaa). The collection and use of nutrition information was faced with failure in capturing data of some crucial nutrition indicators. Also, the recorded data in some cases was not reflecting the actual situation, while the available data was not accessed easily and therefore not been able to utilize the nutrition information effectively to inform policy making and decision making. Conclusion: Nutrition governance and accountability through nutrition budgeting, coordination and use of nutrition information for informing policy implementation at council and sub-council levels are still facing a number of challenges related with low nutrition budget spending especially at the Morogoro District Council, probably caused by low prioritization of nutrition and low understanding of nutrition issues. Coordination of nutrition at council and sub-council levels need to be strengthened for abidance to the guidelines provided by PO-RALG. Similarly, collection and management of nutrition data and information at the council and sub-council levels need to be strengthened to be well informing to the policy makers and for development planning. For improvement of nutrition governance and accountability, the central government, Tanzania Food and Nutrition Centre (TFNC), local government authority and other nutrition stakeholders have to increase the investment in nutrition.
The effect of local cassava processing methods on nutritional and sensory attributes of cassava flour: a case study of Newala district
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2007) Majaliwa, Nuria
A study was carried out in Newala District to investigate the effect of different local cassava processing methods on cyanogenic glucosides level, nutrient retention and colour of cassava flour. Specifically the study was aimed at identifying different local cassava processing methods, examining the effect of local processing methods on residual cyanogenic glucosides in the cassava flours, examining the effect of local processing methods on nutrient retention and color of cassava flour and study the cassava processing and production constraints in the study area. In each study site, information was obtained by focus group discussion, structured questionnaire from 40 households in each village. Samples were collected for laboratory analysis. Results showed high total residual cyanogen levels of about (790 ± 107 mg HCN equivalent/Kg dry weight) and (263 ± 71 mg HCN equivalent/Kg dry weight) in flour obtained from both small-size and large-size niakopa respectively. Cyanohydrin levels were higher (39 ± 5 mg HCN equivalent/Kg dry weight) in Chinyanya compared to levels of about (7 ± 2 mg HCN equivalent/Kg dry weight) in the flour from large size makopa. Chinyanya showed to contain (75 g/1OOg, starch, 1.3 g/1OOg protein, 32.8 g/1OOg vitamin C, 18.7 g/1OOg moisture and 13.22 pH, Makopa showed to contain 80.0 g/1OOg starch, 2.72 g/1OOg protein, 24.52 g/1OOg vitamin C, 12.5 g/1OOg moisture, at pH 10.28 where as fermented root showed to contain 65.2 g/1OOg starch, 0.75 g/1OOg protein, 15.4 g/1OOg vitamin C, 13.7 g/1OOg moisture, pH 5.25). These findings confirmed that direct sun-drying of cassava roots is an ineffective method for removal of cyanogenic glucosides as it yields products with relatively high residual levels of cyanogenic glucosides while fermentation of cassava root is an effective method in removal of total glucosides. Apart from colour preference, this study concluded that although wet fermentation showed high nutrient loss, from the health point of view it is an effective way of reducing cynogenic glucosides level from cassava root, which are dangerous for human health.
Processing of cassava, residual cyanogens and mycotoxin content in traditionally processed cassava products
(The University of Reading, 1998-04) Muzanila, Yasinta C.
Cassava samples from some villages in Tanzania processed by wet fermentation, solid state fermentation and sun drying were analysed for residual cyanogens and presence of mycotoxins. Cassava samples (bitter varieties) processed by wet and solid- concluded that wet fermentation is very effective in reducing cyanogens in cassava. No mycotoxins (aflatoxins ) were detected in cassava samples. The chemical composition of these cassava samples was also determined. Wet fermentation showed lower content of vitamin C, reducing sugars and protein compared to samples processed by solid state fermentation and sun drying. In another experiment, cassava flakes were produced on a drum drier using varying pre cooking temperatures and drum speeds. Pre-cooking conditions were: no pre-cooking, pre-cooking at 75°C for 35 minutes and 100°C for 5 minutes. The drum speeds used were 11.5 and 14.0 r.p.m. which correspond to 4.0 and 3.4 seconds drying time respectively. The flakes were analysed for vitamin C, moisture, free starch, reducing sugars and protein content. Pre-cooking conditions affected vitamin C, moisture and free starch content while Hmm speed affected only the moisture content of the flakes. Prolonged pre-cooking time caused losses in vitamin C while pre-cooking at the higher temperature increased free starch content of the flakes. The moisture content increased with increasing drum speed. The soluble amylose test showed that starch retrogradation occurs when cassava is cooled after the pre-cooking stage. The textural characteristics of reconstituted mash from the flakes was analysed using the Texture Analyser, after adding emulsifiers (stearate monoglyceride, sodium caseinate and skim milk powder). Results from Texture Profile Analysis (TPA) (adhesiveness), tests showed that stearate monoglyceride Back extrusion and sensory evaluation emulsifier reduces the stickiness of reconstituted cassava flakes mash. The Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) thermograms indicated the formation of an amylose monoglyceride complex. Cassava samples with stearate monoglyceride had low water absorption capacity and high bulk density. Also sample with stearate monoglyceride had low viscosity according to the results from the Brabender amylograph tests. Samples of cassava flakes and reconstituted mash with skim milk powder and sodium caseinate were darker in colour compared to those with stearate monoglyceride according to the results from both instrumental (Hunter Lab spectrophotometer) and sensory tests.

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