Theses and Dissertations Collection

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Feed selectivity studies in sheep and goats offered multipurpose trees (MPT)
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 1996) Khama, Isaac Rashidi Saguti
Four experiments were conducted to evaluate voluntary intake, nutritive value and selectivity of three browse species (Albizia lebbek, Glyricidia sepium and Tamarindus indica) offered form of in fresh branches to confined sheep and goats. In experiment 1 voluntary intake of the browses offered as sole diet to the animals was studied. Experiment 2 examined voluntary intake of the browses offered with a basal ration of Chloris gayana hay Preference ranking of the browse species was carried out in experiment 3 . In experiment 4, DM degradability of botanical parts of browse species and basal ration (hay) were determined using fistulated sheep and goats. Twelve mature Black Head Persian (BHP) sheep aged between 21 and 90 months with initial liveweights ranging from 24.4 to 33.2 kg and twelve Small East African goats aged between 31 to 86 months with initial liveweights of 24.8 to 30.2 kg were used. Goats) were Eight animals (4 sheep and 4 randomly allocated to each browse experiments 1 and 2. type in In experiment 3, six sheep and six goats selected from animals used in experiments 1 and 2 were used for preference study. In study degradability (experiment4) , three fistulated sheep and three fistulated goats fed a standard diet were used to determine DM degradability of individual browse parts and hay. In experiment 1DM I total of (Leaves browses and bark) in sheep were 46.50 , 79.40 and 4 8.43 g/kgW0.75 day, for A. lebbek, G. sepium and T. indica respectively . The respective values for goats were 39.68 , 56.79 and 48.66 g/kgW' ■0.75 / day. In experiment 1more consumed sheep A.1ebbek and G.sepium (bark) and leaves) than goats (P<0.05) in terms of DM I (g/kgW075 / day). There was no significant difference between sheep and goats for the DMI of T.indica (P>0.05). In experiment 2 when Chloris gayana hay was offered in addition to browse species, DMI of A. lebbek in sheep increased to whereas 66.06 that of others declined to 64.64 (G. sepium) and 35.70 (T. indica) g/kgW r0.75 / day. In goats DMI of the browses also declined to 38.89 (A. lebbek), 56.25 (G. sepium) and 34.61 (T. indica) g/kgW 0.75 / day. However, total DMI (browse and hay) of sheep and goats observed in this experiment were higher(P than those of experiment 1 (sole browse). <0.05). In experiment 3 when all browse species and hay were offered together to individual animals goats consumed more T.indica and G. sepium (P <0.05) than sheep. The DMI (g /kgW075 / day) of sheep for A.lebbek was higher than that of goats (P<0.05) . However, total DMI (browses and hay) for sheep and goats were not significant (P>0.05). Leaves of all browse species had significantly higher (P<0.05) contents of soluble (a=32.2-38.6 vs 18.4-30.7%) and potential (total) degradable matter (a+b = 67.5- 85.6 vs 62.9-79.6%) than barks and hay. Species comparisons showed significant difference concluded that with low A. quality in lebbek, these sepium and T. G. roughage It parameters. Could was indica fed improve animal productivity through increased DM intake if mixed browses are offered simultaneously with hay. Further studies on protein. There is need fordegradability and factors limiting browse intake and their effects on actual (growth rates, milk yield etc) animal performance.
A study on the use of the sugar palm tree (Borassus flabellifer) for different purposes in Cambodia
(Swedish University of Agricultural science, 1996) Khieu Borin
This thesis is based on two studies carried out in two different districts of the Kandal and Takeo provinces in Cambodia where a dense populations of the sugar palm (Borassus flabellifer) are found. The aim of the studies was to understand the sugar palm tree and the traditional pig production systems .The studies comprised quantification of sugar palm juice production and the use of palm juice as an energy feed for pigs. A participatory study was conducted in five villages to determine the profitability of sugar syrup production and of pig production based on sugar palm juice. The further study consisted of a feeding trial in which the growth performance of crossbred pigs M diets consisting of palm juice and boiled whole soya beans with a supplement of water was evaluated. Sugar palm is considered as one of the high potential multipurpose trees in the tropics, and produces valuable carbohydrates without any agronomic inputs. A total of 105 male and female sugar palm trees were studied during a period of five months, the results demonstrating that a palm tree produces seasonally an average of 5 kg of juice per day with a Brix value (approximate sugar content) of 13.3%. Assuming that the canopy of a palm tree is 50 m2, a hectare of 200 trees will seasonally produce approximately 150,000 kg of juice per year. Sugar palm syrup production is one of the two main activities of. most rural Cambodian farmers after rice growing. The activity commences in December with the preparation of materials for sugar syrup production: The^most expensive component in the cost of sugar syrup production is fire wood which is difficult to get today.-It was clearly shown during the present study that when fire wood was purchased from the market four of seven farmers lost an average 27 Riels per day (1 SUS =2,350 Riels) here were no significant differences between days in the yield of juice and Brix value (approximate sugar content) (P=0.390 and P=0.534), respectively. How^vey.there was a highly significant difference in the yield ofjuice and Brix value (叫proximate suagr content) between families, months and sex of the palm tree (P<0.001) and a ^ignifi^antidjfference in Brix value (approximate sugar content) between male and female trees (1^=0.005). Seventy two crossbred pigs comprising Yorkshire, Landrace and local pigs raised from 20*80 kg on ]2 farms. The main energy source was palm juice fed restrictly. A daily amount of 400g soya beans of protein source were and daily supplement of 0.5 kg of water spinach and lime and salt were given. The average daily weight gain of the pigs of the twelve farmers was 356 g (range 320-417 g) and there were no statistically significant differences in live weight gains between fams (P=0.735). The demand for meat increases as the population grows, and the living standards improve. Therefore, the new technique to feed pigs with sugar palm juice is an alternative and interesting source of income for rurat communities in Cambodia. In addition, it will create work for the farmers and reduce the migration to the cities and simultaneously improves the use of local resources increasing the sustainability of agriculture.
Assessment of dairy production in Tanga region: farmers’ awareness and adoption of the available technologies for Improving feed quality
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2005) Teendwa, Anselim Antoni Patrick
A study was carried out in three districts (Tanga, Muheza and Lushoto) in Tanga region. The aim of the study was to assess dairy production, fanners’ awareness and adoption of available technologies for improving feed quality. Data were collected using informal and formal interviews where structured questionnaires were administered to 40 randomly selected smallholder dairy keepers in each districts. The data were analysed quantitatively and qualitatively using descriptive analysis and logit regression. Results indicated that all dairy farmers were aware of the introduced feed improvement technologies (FIT), which were fodder garden establishment, feed supplementation (energy, protein and minerals), and haymaking or use. Rate of adoption was higher on fodder garden establishment (63%) of the respondents and low in feed supplementation (15%) and least in hay use (8%). Land shortage: and high cost of supplementary feeds, seasonality in availability, low price of milk together with poor milk outlet, ineffective research-extension and farmers' linkage lowered adoption of fodder garden establishment and feed supplementation technology respectively. The intensity of adoption of fodder garden establishment, feed supplementation and mineral supplementation were 50%, 65% and 25%, respectively of the TADAT project recommendations. Factors that influenced adoption of fodder garden establishment positi\ely (P<0.01) were: larger farm, attendance to training on dairy husbandry, closer distance to the milk selling centres and high price of milk in the dry season. Older age. low price of milk in the wet season and presence of other income generating activities influenced adoption of this technology (PcO.Ol) negatively. Largerhousehold and low price of concentrates influenced positively (PcO.Ol) adoption of feed supplementation. Interventions to increase access to land, credit, market and education with farmer participation will improve adoption of FI T. Strategics to assist dairy farmers to establish and manage cooperative societies to utilize economies of scales in milk marketing and acquisition of supplementary feeds and policy to increase milk utility and shelf life together with formalizing peri-urban and urban livestock keeping with legal backing is recommended.
Heifer in-trust schemes’ contribution to smallholders’ well-being in diverse agro-ecological and cultural environments in Tanzania
(Sokoine UNiversity of Agriculture, 2015) Msangya, Msangya Lameck
Diverse agro-ecological factors in terms of seasonality, rainfall patterns, quality pasture availability and cultural environments in terms of beliefs, animal treatment and protection and gender relations’ structures pose different challenges on Heifer In-trust Schemes (HIS) in Tanzania. The above have impacts on milk production, income from milk sales, women empowerment and employment generation. These factors have not sufficiently been explored in many studies. This study was conducted in Njombe (highland) and Shinyanga (semi-arid) regions to try to fill in that research gap. The study specifically: (i) explored the role of Heifer-In-trust Schemes to smallholders’ self-employment; (ii) determined the implications of the seasonality and rainfall patterns, quality pasture, traditional animal grazing systems and treatment; and protection to Heifer In-trust Schemes objectives; (iii) assessed the participation and benefits of men and women household heads in Heifer In-trust Schemes in the study areas of Njombe and Shinyanga Regions; and (iv) evaluated the performance of households’ well-being indicators in the study area. The study adopted a cross-sectional research design in which 402 households were surveyed. Moreover, 9 focus group discussions (FGDs) and 15 Key Informant (KI) interviews including livestock extension workers, leaders of farmer groups, Community Animal Health Workers, Local Government Authorities staff and project holders, and input suppliers. Mixed research methods approach was used for data collection including sequential exploratory design for both qualitative and quantitative information. Purposive sampling was used to select regions, districts and wards. Simple random sampling was used to select villages and HIS respondent. The unit of analysis was a HIS participant. Qualitative data from FGDs and Kls were transcribed into texts and analysed using content analysis techniques whereby the flow of logic and constant comparison between the logic was employed. As regards quantitative data from the households, the Statisticaliii Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 16 was used to determine descriptive and inferential statistics, including t-test, chi-square and Wilcoxon Signed Test. The results showed that HIS had generated employment opportunities among the less formally educated youth, women and men. The results further showed that negative implications of seasonality, rainfall pattern, and quality pasture availability in highland and semi-arid areas were more prevalent during the dry season. Moreover, the results showed that traditional grazing systems, animal treatment and protection had more negative effects on HIS in semi-arid areas. Comparatively, the results show that women had benefited more than men, and HIS had empowered women in terms of resource access, control and ownership. Moreover, the results showed that income before and after the scheme in both Njombe and Shinyanga regions were significant (p<0.05). In addition, annual net cash increased almost eight-fold after the HIS, and all male and female participating in HIS were getting above TZS 4 000 000 ($ 2 224) per annum. The results further showed that children’s education, assets acquisition and food accounted for 36.2%, 24.3% and 10.5% of income expenditure accrued from HIS respectively. The results also showed that meal frequencies and households’ food diversity had improved as meals taken and meals composition before and after HIS were different (p<0.05). The results further showed that during the wet season average milk production increased by six litres per cow per day. However, more milk was sold during the dry season as demand was higher while production was low. The study concludes that HIS has significantly contributed to smallholders’ well-being in Tanzania. However, any dairy farming for poverty reduction innovation should consider agro-ecology and cultural issues.
The nutritive value of alkali and manure treated corn stover silage
(Sokoine Univesity of Agriculutre, 1981) Sarwatt, Sebastian V.
Chopped corn stover was reconstituted, treated and ensiled in 3 ply-nylon bags placed in 10 gallon plastic drums at room temperature for 30 days. The treatments were: (1) control-corn stover + water, (2) 4% NaOH, (3) 4% NH^OH, (4) 3% NaOH + 1% NH40H, (5) 2% NaOH + 2% NH.OH, 35% manure + 65% corn stover on wet basis, (7) 35% manure 4 - (6) • ■ i + 4% NaOH by weight on DM basis. and examined for smell and color. After 30 days the bags were opened Sub-samples were collected for chemical analysis. While there was a significant Cp < 0.05) increase of crude protein and ash there was significant (p < 0.05) decrease of neutral detergent fiber and acid detergent fiber. There was significant (P < 0.05) decrease of hemicellulose and cellulose with alkali treat- ment, but the differences between alkali containing samples were not I significant (p > 0.05). There was no significant (p > 0.05) changes in lignin content between the treatments. The in vitro dry matter diges tibility (IVDMD) was significantly (p < 0.05) improved by alkali treatments and decreased by manure inclusion. Both alkali and manure treatment significantly (p < 0.05) improved IVDMD than manure alone. Different levels of NaOH and NH^OH in combination did not have better results than any of the alkali separately. The physical fermentation characteristics indicated that fermen tation had taken place. The alkali treated silages had sweet "estery" iiismell and yellow color. The manure containing silage had butyric acid smell and dark brown color. Chemical fermentation parameters measured were pH, lactic acid and volatile fatty acids. There was a significant (P < 0.05) decrease of pH of alkali and waste containing silages after ensiling. There was no significant (p > 0.05) change of pH of post- ensiled untreated silage when compared to the pre-ensiled untreated silage. Lactic acid and propionic acid showed a significant (p < 0.05) decrease between the untreated and treated samples, while acetic acid and butyric acid showed significant (,p < 0.05) increase between the untreated and treated samples.
Improvement of natural pastures (rweya land) by oversowing with leguminous plant species in Bukoba district, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2014) Mwita, Caleb Victor
A study was conducted in three rweya sites at Maruku Agricultural Research and Development Institute, Bukoba. Five leguminous plant species (Centrosema pubescens, Desmodium intortum, Macroptilium atropurpureum, Clitoria ternatea and Puereria phaseoloides) were oversown into natural pastures to assess their influence on forage dry matter yield, nutritive value and soil fertility. Sites were selected based on differences in soil fertility. These were; one with high soil fertility, two with medium soil fertility and three with poor soil fertility. Two soil samples were taken at each site for analysis, one before oversowing and another eight months after oversowing. Forage samples were also harvested twice, at seven months after oversowing and seven weeks after first harvest. Soil analysis indicated that oversowing improved soil nitrogen and available phosphorus but had no impact on soil organic matter and pH. Macroptilium atropurpureum and C. ternatea disappeared from site three while C. pubescens and P. phaseoloides performed well across all sites. In the first harvest the DM yield in all sites ranged between 778.48±162 and 1384.36±162kgDM/ha and its was not significantly different between treatments. In the second harvest, DM yield ranged between 1013.63±184 and 2564.6 l±188kgDM/ha. This harvest had generally higher DM yields than the first. Generally, the control treatments had lower DM yields than the oversown treatments. The CP content in the first harvest ranged between 4.62±0.29 and 11.28±0.64%. Highest value was observed in C. pubescens oversown treatment while the lowest value was observed in the control treatments. In the second harvest, the CP content ranged between 5.44±0.43 and 9.14±0.64%. It was also abseryed.that all oversown treatments had CP values above 6.5%. NDF content in the first harvestiii ranged between 69.03±1.72 and 74.36±1.26% for oversown treatments and the control treatments it ranged between 74.89±1.72 and 79.68±1.26% in all sites. In the second harvest, NDF content for oversown treatments ranged between 69.6±1.72 and 76.77±1.26% and for the control treatments it ranged between 75.16±1.72 and 78.04±1.26%. The ADF content in the first harvest ranged between 37.22±0.89 and 46.62±0.61 for oversown treatments and the control treatments ranged between 44.57±1.35 and 47.67±0.89%. In the second harvest, ADF values ranged between 40.78±1.35 to 48.85±0.89% and 48.27±1.35 to 50±0.61% for oversown and control treatments respectively. In vitro dry matter digestibility in the first harvest ranged between 34.44 to 41.59±3.11% and 28.54±2.13 to 37.27±1.81 for oversown and the control treatments respectively. In the second harvest it ranged between 30±3.11 and 38.74±1.81% and 27.78±2.13 to 32.52±1.81% for the oversown and the control treatments respectively. The In vitro organic matter digestibility ranged between 49.93±2.49 to 55.98±3.14% and 42.45±2.49 to 47.46±1.66% for the oversown and control treatments respectively. In the second harvest it ranged between 47.17±2.49 to 52.49±1.66% for the oversown treatments and 41.71±2.49 to 46.12±1 .66% for the control treatments. In all harvests the control treatments had lower values than the oversown treatments. It was concluded that, oversowing leguminous plant species into natural pastures improved soil chemical properties and also it increased the nutritive value of natural pastures in terms of higher digestibility values, CP contents and reduced cell wall contents (NDF and ADF). It was also observed that, oversowing had no effect on ash and ADL content of natural pastures.
On-farm performance of selected improved forage varieties under smallholder farming conditions in the Southern Highlands of Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2024) Mteta, Safiel Kangalu
Scarcity of high-quality forages especial in dry season, hinders the development of the dairy industry in Tanzania. Adopting improved forage varieties is viewed as a breakthrough for smallholders in dairy-producing areas such as the Southern Highlands of Tanzania. The study was conducted to assess selected soil properties of pasture plots, and the performance of improved forage varieties in smallholder farming settings in Southern Highlands of Tanzania. The Highlands are located between 6° and 12° S latitudes and longitude 29° to 38°E, receive 823-2850 mm of rainfall annually from November to April, and have a mean annual temperature of 13°C-19°C. Two wards per district: Igowole and Mtwango (Mufindi), Ikuna and Kichiwa (Njombe) and Kiwira and Lufingo (Rungwe) were selected for the study. From 101 randomly interviewed respondents, 38 households with >0.1 acres pasture plots were purposively picked for soil performance study, meanwhile 30 among 38 households, with set of Brachiaria hybrid cvs. Cayman and Cobra and P. purpureum cvs. ILRI 16835 and Ouma, were purposively picked for forage performance study. Soil auger was used to draw soil samples at 0-20 cm and 21-50 cm depths. Composite soil samples per depths per plot were sent to Lab, air-dried for a week and sieved to pass through 2 mm sieve. In Lab soil sample were analysed for, Texture by hydrometer method, soil pH by pH meter in 1:2.5 soil-water suspension and 1N KCl, Total Nitrogen (TN) by Kjeldahl method, Available P by Bray method since the soil was acidic, Exchangeable Calcium [Ca2+] and Magnesium [Mg+] by atomic absorption spectrophotometer and Exchangeable Sodium [Na+] and Potassium [K+] by flame photometer. Prior evaluation of forage performance, swards of Brachiaria hybrid and P. purpureum cultivars were standardised at 5 cm and 7 cm stubble cut, respectively. Data for forage growth, biomass yield and nutritional values, were collected from 4 m2 sampling unit per cultivar per plot, at the end of each of the two phases of 6-weeks. Six plants were randomly selected in each sampling unit and a tape measure was used to measure the height from ground level to plant tip (inflorescence excluded), length and width of the constantly third-from-top leaf were measured. Live and sprouting tillers from each plant's shoot were counted for tiller numbers. Sampling unit harvest used to estimate biomass yield per-hectare. 300 g fresh forage sample from each plot was weighed, air-dried at 65 oC for 48 hours and ground to pass a 1 mm sieve. Association of Official Analytical Chemists standard procedures were used to analyse oven-dry matter (DM) (ID 930.15), Ash (ID 942.05), Crude protein (CP) by Kjeldahl method (ID 954.01), neutral detergent fiber (NDF) and acid detergent fiber (ADF) were analysed using Van Soest procedures. Soil pH, TN, available P-, exchangeable cations (K+, Ca2+, Mg+ and Na+), and particle sizes (clay, silt, and sand) were analysed using ANOVA type III mixed effect model: Y = Soil depth (Fixed) + District (Fixed) + Soil depth*District (Fixed) + Ward (Random) + Residual error. Tukey's method compared mean soil parameters across soil depths and districts and P<0.05 was deemed significant. Kruskal-Wallis H test was used to analyse and compare median plant height, leaf length and width, tiller numbers, and forage biomass yield. DM, Ash, CP, NDF and ADF were analysed using an ANOVA mixed effect model: Y = Cultivar (Fixed) + Growth phase (Random) + Ward (Random) + Residual error. Tukey's method was used to compare cultivars' mean nutritional characteristics at p 0.05. Selected soil properties varied significantly (p<0.05) by depth and district. All districts had acidic soil pH (<5.5) in two soil depths except Rungwe, which was medium. TN was generally medium (0.2-0.3%) in all districts. Available P was medium in Mufindi (8.7 mg/kg), but was low in Njombe (2.9 mg/kg), and Rungwe (0.03 mg/kg). Exchangeable K + was in borderline (0.2 Cmol+/kg) between medium and low values in Mufindi and Njombe, but medium in Rungwe (0.6 Cmol+/kg). Plant height, leaf length and number of tillers among cultivars varied significantly (p<0.05). Cayman (28.8 cm) and Cobra (26.6 cm) had shorter plant height than ILRI 16835 (50.7 cm) and Ouma (56.4 cm). Cobra and Cayman (21 cm both) had shorter leaf length than ILRI 16835 (46.7 cm) and Ouma (47.6 cm). Cayman (64) and Cobra (67) had the highest numbers of tiller than ILRI 16835 (22) and Ouma (21). Cayman had the widest leaf width (2.1 cm) while Ouma had the lowest (1.7 cm). Above-ground forage biomass DM and ash contents were not statistically different (p>0.05) among cultivars. NDF and ADF varied between cultivars (p<0.05). Cayman had the lowest NDF and ADF values (539 g kg-1 DM) and (256 g kg-1 DM) compared to other cultivars (545-571 g kg -1 DM), and (264-292 g kg-1 DM) respectively. Crude Protein values did not vary statistically (p>0.05). Study concluded that, soil conditions were not sufficient to support production of improved forage varieties despite fertilizer uses. CP values was similar across cultivars and Cayman was the best cultivar in the southern highlands for its lower NDF. Evaluated cultivars alone cannot meet lactating cows’ nutritional needs, so they must be supplemented.
Major problems which hinder the adoption of agricultural innovations by farmers as perceived by state extension directors and county agent association presidents
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 1980) Mannento, Joas Elinazi
This study was conducted with the prime objective of determining major problems constraining adoption of new agricultural practices by farmers as perceived by state directors of CES and presidents of CEAA. The method used was the Delphi technique which involved eliciting expert opinions from the study population through administration of two instruments to participants. Opinions reported were the consensus of the total population. Data were processed through the West Virginia University Computer Center and means and standard deviations were determined for each statement. Group means and standard deviations were also determined for positions and regions. There was no need for inferential statistics as perceptions of the total population were studied. Economic Factors 1. Participants viewed problems connected with interest rates which affect long-term investment, cost-price squeeze which relates to inflation, costs of land and equipment, energy costs, and pressure on land use in highly populated areas, as outstanding economic factors. Aspects related to credit and debt, aside from interest rates and those dealing with economic uncertainty, were considered serious as well by respondents. 2. Strong agreement was noted between directors and presidents concerning economic factors hampering new farming practices. A notable difference, however, was found in the statement "farmers lack understanding of credit use," which was more seriously viewed by directors than presidents. 3. Regional variations, which may be attributed to geo- physical position, climatic conditions and enterprise variations, were observed. Credit and debt related factors were considered relatively more serious by southern and western respondents than by north central and northeastern participants. Cost-price squeeze factors related to land costs and value in highly populated areas were rated highest by northeastern and western participants and lowest by those in the north central region. Urban pressure by expanding metropolitan areas in these regions could be postulated as the contributory factor. Infrastructure related problems were rated somewhat higher by southern respondents than by north central respondents. Technical and Managerial Factors 1. Inadequacy of farm records was singled out by participants as the outstanding problem. Availability of skilled labor and manage- ment skills of farmers were also perceived as major bottlenecks toward adoption of new agricultural practices. Transportation of farm inputs and produce were as well viewed as acute problems by respondents 2. Participants also considered those problems connected with farmers being locked into enterprises due to loans or equipment, difficulties in fitting new technologies into existing operations, farm size, and influence of weather in farming, as major concerns affecting adoption of innovations. 3. Directors and presidents agreed strongly in all statements except three. These statements included management skills, trans portation facilities and progressive farmers preceding research recommendations. 4. rated. Regional variations were observed in all statements Part-time farming was considered more serious by western region participants and a lesser concern by participants in the north central region. Other statements which showed considerable differences included those related to labor, transport, farm size, weather, and farming as a hobby. Factors related to farm size and farming as a hobby were rated highest by western region participants and lowest by north central respondents. Transportation of farm inputs and produce was viewed as a more serious problem by north central respondents than by northeastern and western region respondents. Social Factors 1. Farmers’ behavior and attitudes toward change were considered by respondents to be the most outstanding social problems constraining adoption of new practices.The conservative farmer was perceived to be the foremost problem.Tradition and lack of confidence in making innovations succeed were other factors considered major problems. 2. Directors and presidents strongly agreed on social factors constraining new agricultural practices except with problems related to age and education of fanners. Presidents considered age of farmers relatively more serious than did directors while the problem related to educational level of farms was weighted higher by directors than presidents. 3. Regional variations, which may be assumed to emanate from cultural heritage, tradition and environmental exposure, were observed. Three out of the nine statements showed considerable variations among regions. These statements included those related to lack of profit oriented goals which was rated highest by northeast region respondents and lowest by western participants; and age of farmers which was viewed as least important by north central respondents. Educational level of farmers was rated considerably higher by southern region participants than by those from north central region. Informational Factors 1. Lack of extension and research personnel, time and support to show farmers how new practices work was considered by participants the most serious problem connected with informational factors. A segmented rather than a systems approach, insufficient research, and lack of personalized assistance were other informational problems noted by participants. 2. Directors and presidents strongly agreed that lack of research and extension staff, time and support was the informational problem of major concern. 3. Regional differences were noted in several informational factors constraining new agricultural practices. Inadequate result demonstration and field days was rated more serious by northeast and southern participants than by those in the north central and western regions. Considerable differences were also noted among regions on statements related to lack of faith in research and extension systems, psychological approach by change agents, and communication of innovations by extension personnel. Political Factors 1. Political factors which influence the adoption of new agricultural practices by farmers were considered serious impediments by participants. Government interference and regulation was singled out as the most serious problem. Condition of the national economy was also considered a major constraining factor. 2. Directors and presidents strongly agreed on the seriousness of political factors hampering adoption of new agricultural practices. However, presidents rated the statements related to government interference, world situation, zoning, and land taxation higher than did directors. 3. Regional differences concerning influence of political factors affecting adoption of new farming practices were noted. Increasing land taxation was rated serious by all except north central participants. Zoning was considered an acute problem by participants in northeastern and western regions, whereas north central and southern respondents were Iqss concerned.
The effect of substituting sunflower seed cake with acacia tortilis pods as a protein supplement on the performance of small East African goats
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2003) Leonidas, Ntakwendela
Two experiments (growth and digestibility) were conducted to investigate the effect of substituting sunflower seed cake (SSC) with Acacia tortilis pods (Atp) as a protein supplement on the performance of Small East African Goats. Brachiaria hay was given as a basal diet while Atp, SSC, hominy meal (HM) and mineral mixture were used as components of the supplementary rations. Four treatment rations based on ground Atp and SSC as protein supplements were formulated in such a way that ground Atp replaced 0, 33.3, 66.7 and 100 % of SSC in T|, T2, T3, and T4 respectively. In growth study, 24 female weaner goats with mean initial body weight of 9.71± 1.56 kgs were randomly allocated to the four treatment diets. Each weaner goat was given ad libitum hay and supplementary diet at a rate of 20g/kg body weight. Feed intake and growth performances were recorded for 90 days. In experiment 2, digestibility study to evaluate the effect of dietary treatments on nutrient digestibility and nitrogen utilization was conducted using 12 male goats. In growth and intake study, hay and total dry matter intake tended to increase with increasing levels of Acacia tortilis pods in the supplementary diet, goats offered supplementary diet T4 showed the highest intake. The CP intake did not differ significantly (P>0.05). The intake of ME was significantly (P<0.05) different only between Ti and T4. Significant (P<0.05) difference was observed in growth rate between the animals in Tj and those in T3 and T4. Similarly, the feed utilization efficiency for animals in Ti was significantly (P<0.05) lower than that of the animals in T3 and T4. The treatment diets had no significant (P>0.05) effect on the apparent digestibility of DM, OM, CP and NDF. There was no significant (P>0.05) difference between treatments on nitrogen utilisation, however nitrogen retention was slightly
Participatory establishment of cenchrus ciliaris among pastoralists using different seedbed types and manure levels in semi-arid area, Mvomero, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2024) Ngenzi, Onesmo Damian
Ruminant livestock species such as cattle, sheep, and goats in tropical countries including Tanzania to a large extent depend on natural pasture found in semi-arid rangelands as the major feed resource. Among the major challenges in the communal semi-arid rangelands in Tanzania is the seasonal fluctuations in availability of forages in terms of both quantity and quality. Natural forages are plenty and nutritious during wet seasons but become scarce and with less protein content during dry seasons, hence; inability to meet nutritional requirements of ruminants throughout the year. There are incidences of dry season loss of conditions and even mortalities of cattle reared in the semi-arid rangelands. Various efforts are employed to improve the situation, in particular towards improving feed availability during dry seasons. The pastoralists practice nomadism, the movement with animals to other potential places with substantial pasture and water. The livestock mobility are accompanied with serious consequences including conflicts with crop farmers and conservation agencies, animal deaths, and environment damage such as soil erosion and pollution of surface water resources. Improving the utilisation and productivity of grazed semi-arid areas under the pastoral system is crucial. Cenchrus ciliaris forage could be cultivated to ensure feed availability for sustainable dry-season livestock feeding. However, forage cultivation is new among pastoralists, and there is a need for participatory cultivation through Farm Field School (FFS). The research project was conducted to evaluate the growth and nutritional value of C. ciliaris cultivated under not-tilled (NT), tilled flat (TF), and tilled sunken (SN) land preparation methods and different manure levels (0 t/ha, 5 t/ha, 10 t/ha, and 15 t/ha). Quantitative and qualitative data were collected in a semi-arid village in Mvomero district, eastern Tanzania. The qualitative data involved information on livestock importance and breeds, milk production and marketing, livestock production challenges, and manure management. Other qualitative data were grazing land conditions, improvement practices, and dry-season feeding strategies. Quantitative data included C. ciliaris establishment rate, grass cover, agronomic characteristics, and nutritional values. Pastoralists were keeping local cattle, goat, and sheep breeds, which they depend upon as a source of income, food, insurance during emergencies, and other socio-cultural values. The FFS members had a smaller average herd size (35 cattle, 14 goats, and 8 sheep per household) than the non- members (52 cattle, 30 goats, and 12 sheep per household). The attitude of FFS members to keep fewer number of livestock compared to non-members was attributed to awareness on safe livestock caring capacity. Daily milk yield was low in both FFS members and non-members (0.5 - 1.4 litres/cow/day) and varied seasonally (p < 0.05), in dry season was lower than wet season, which led to poor market access in the studied area. Many respondents (68%) were not collecting or using manure for either food crops or pasture production. Moreover, most respondents in FFS member and non-member groups perceived grazing land to be poor because it took their livestock a long time and distance to find forage. Also, there were limited grazing land improvement practices because of the communal grazing, limited privately owned land and large herd sizes. Migration and use of crop residues were the main dry-season feeding strategies in both groups. Few individuals had established private forage reserves in the grazing land, which were smaller (p < 0.05) in FFS members (0.8 ha per houehold) than non- members (2 ha per household). The Tilled flat seedbed in different manure levels had higher (p < 0.05) establishment rate (97%), grass cover (66 - 78%), and biomass yields (10 – 12.6 t/ha) than no tilled and sunken seedbeds. The responding FFS members perceived TF as a better land preparation method because of its high yields and grass cover at the study site. There were variations in biomass yield and grass cover among manure levels, whereby a manure level of 10 t/ha resulted in the optimum return comparing to other manure levels in the current study. The protein values (104 - 132 g/kg DM) in cultivated forage were sufficient to meet the daily nutritional requirements of ruminants. However, the estimated energy intake (7 - 15 MJ ME/day) was insufficient for optimum cattle performance and would require other feed supplementation, such as treated maize stover and bean haulm with molasses or urea during the dry- season. Lack of effective dry-season feeding strategy, poor grazing land conditions, and low milk yield showed the importance of C. ciliaris cultivation at the study site. Based on the results from this study, the TF and manure 10 t/ha are the recommended land preparation method and manure level for C. ciliaris cultivation at study site and similar areas due to better agronomic performance.
Effect of leguminous tree leaves as nitrogen additive to pennisetum purpureum silage
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 1999) Tesha, Martha William
A study comprising of two experiments was conducted to investigate the effectiveness of three leguminous tree leaves as nitrogen additive (NA) in presence or absence of molasses (as WSC additive) on fermentation and nutritive value of napier (Pennisetum purpureum) silage. Gliricidia sepium, Leucaena leucocephala and Sesbania sesban leaves were used in experiment I while L. leucocephala leaves was used in experiment II. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) cylinders (1.9xl0’2m3) were used as laboratory silos for experiment I and earth pit silos (Im3) for experiment II. A 2 x 3 x 3 factorial experiment which comprised of fourteen treatments was adopted in experiment I. Napier grass was ensiled in combination with leaves from G.sepium, L. leucocephala and S.sesban as NA. Each combination received three levels of NA (0, 15 and 30% w/w) and two levels of molasses (0 and 3% w/w). A 2 x 3 factorial experiment that comprised of six treatments was adopted in experiment II. One combination in experiment I was ensiled in pilot scale silos, where L.leucocephala was chosen as (NA). Same levels of inclusion of Leucaena and molasses in experiment I were used in this experiment and the grass alone without and with molasses served as contro. The effect of molasses, NA type, NA inclusion level and interactions were observed in experiment I while the effect of molasses and NA inclusion level as well as the interaction between the two were observed in experiment II. Parameters observed in both experiments were sensoric tests, dry matter, chemical composition, in vitro dry matter and organic matter digestibility. Diy matter losses and acceptability test were observed in the second experiment only. In experiment I, addition of molasses and combination of molasses and NA inclusion level improved aroma of the silages. Nitrogen additive types and inclusion levels had no significant (P > 0.05) effect on sensoric qualities of the napier silages. Molasses addition improved dry matter, chemical composition and digestibility of the napier silage. Addition of Leucaena increased DM, CP, NDF, ADF and lowered IVDMD and IVOMD as compared to addition of Gliricidia and Sesbania. Inclusion of 15 and 30 percent NA improved silage DM, chemical composition and digestibility. Combination of molasses and NA type had significant (P 0.05) improvement on WSC, ADF, IVDMD and IVOMD while combination of molasses and NA inclusion level had significant (P < 0.05) improvement on WSC, NDF, IVDMD and IVOMD. The NA types at 15 and 30% inclusion had more improvement on DM, chemical composition, IVDMD and IVOMD than 0% inclusion level. All NA types at 15 and 30% inclusion levels had higher CP, WSC, IVDMD, IVOMD and lower NDF than the control, 30% Gliricidia and 30% Sesbania being the highest among the combinations. Fermentation products were significantly (P < 0.05) improved by addition of molasses and nitrogen additives. Combinations of NA with molasses gave better fermentation quality than those without molasses. In experiment II, molasses addition improved aroma of the silage however, it didn't affect appearance and texture. Sensoric qualities were neither affected by NA inclusion level nor the combination of molasses and NA level. Water soluble carbohydrates, ADF, IVDMD and IVOMD were improved by molasses addition. However, in this experiment, DM, CP, ash and NDF were not improved by addition of molasses. The CP, IVDMD and IVOMD increased with increasing NA inclusion level while NDF and ADF decreased with increasing NA inclusion level. The combination of molasses and NA inclusion level had significant (P < 0.05) improvement on WSC, ADL and IVDMD. Fermentation products were improved by both molasses and NA inclusion. However, they were not affected by the combination of molasses and NA inclusion levels. Dry matter losses were significantly lowered by molasses addition (18.5% vs 20.7%). The DM losses decreased with increasing NA inclusion (16.7, 18.9 and 23.3 percent for 30, 15, and 0 percent NA inclusion, respectively). The combinations of molasses and NA inclusion have the DM losses ranged from 16.6% to 27.0%. The intake rate was higher in molassesed than unmolassesed silage. It was also higher in 30 and 15 percent NA levels than 0% NA. The combination of molasses and NA levels had significant effect on intake rate, 15NA+, 30NA+ and 30NA‘ having higher intake rate than other combinations. It was concluded that 30% NA inclusion could be used to conserve well silage of napier grass. Further findings are required to establish the NA inclusion level in other common grasses such as Guatemala grass (Tripsucum laxurri) and Guinea grass (Panicuni maximum).
Analysis of diurnal and seasonal dynamics of water quality parameters and their implications on metabolism and physiology of nile tilapia (oreochromis niloticus) cultured in pond.
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2024) Hamad M. I
Aquaculture production of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) has attracted considerable attention around the world because of their fastest growth rate, good quality meat, and fascinating physiological characteristic that allow them to adopt and strive in a broad range of production systems. Because of these characteristics, Nile tilapia has been adopted as the key aquaculture species in Tanzania. Nile tilapia production in Tanzania takes place primarily in earthen ponds, mostly under a semi-intensive system without the use of water treatment technology. In Tanzania more than 80% of the aquaculture produced fish comes from Nile tilapia raised ponds. The production of Nile tilapia in ponds has for long time been unsuccessful due to poor growth performance. This is because, unlike in other production systems such as Recirculating Aquaculture Systems (RAS), in small water bodies such as earthen ponds water quality parameters vary considerably on a daily basis, depending on the equilibrium reached with the regular physical and chemical characteristics of the surrounding environment. These variation are likely to considerablly effect physiology and welfare of the cultured fish. Unfortunatly, the extent of diurnal, and seasonal variation in water quality parameters in the production ponds across the country are not yet known. This makes it difficult for estimating the influence of changes in fish ponds water quality influences on physiology and performance of cultured Nile tilapia. This study was carried out to determine the current status and dynamics of the diurnal, and seasonal fishpond water quality parameters in Tanzania. It was also carried out to assess the effects of the observed water quality variation on the physiology, metabolism and performance of the pond-cultured Nile tilapia. To achieve the study objectives, a field survey of fish onds and three laboratory experiments were performed. The diurnal and seasonal trends in pond water quality parameters were documented and the effect of changes of some selected water quality parameters on the Nile tilapia physiological characteristics and performances were reported. Study 1. A field survey was conducted between June 2019 and April 2021 in Tanzania. Four agroecological zones (Easter, Southern Highland, Northern, and Lake Zones) were selected as study sites. A total of 120 fish farmers were interviewed using a well structured questionnaire to collect information on the current general farm characteristics and farming practices. In addition, a fish farm with identical ponds stocked with Nile tilapia was selected in each agro-ecological zone, and an in-situ measurement of the water parameters was carried out for one year, covering two seasons (the cold: June to September and the warm season November to January). Results revealed significantly difference in mean pond water temperature between the study zones (p <0.001) with the highest in the Eastern and the lowest in the Southern Highland zones. Results show that the temperature in the Northern zone and Southern highlands during the cold season (June to September) was below the level required for Nile tilapia growth. Other water quality parameters (pH, DO, turbidity, and TDS) varied between seasons within zones, but, were within the range suitable for Nile tilapia growth. The annual fish yield was higher in the Lake zone (629 ±124 kg/ha/yr) suggesting a positive relationship between temperature and fish yield. High net primary production during the warm season in all zones indicates the need for good water quality management to prevent algae blooms, which may result in acute and prolonged stress from hypoxia and hypercapnia, which are the primary physiological stressors for fish. The available data from the survey study was used as a baseline in a series of experiments conducted in the lab at Denmark Technical University (DTU-aqua) to critically assess the effects of the variation in water parameters on the physiology and performance of the cultured Nile tilapia. Experiment 1. High level s of dissolved carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) occurs nightly in earthen ponds characterized by high respiration rates. Exposure to high CO 2 conditions (hypercapnia) leads to acidosis in fish, which can be compensated by an accumulation of HCO 3- to recover intra - and extracellular pH levels, with a capacity that appears to be species-specific. For Nile tilapia, a freshwater tropical teleost traditionally produced in earthen ponds, little information is available on the tolerance to dissolved levels of CO 2 and associated acid-base disturbances. Here, we investigated first the effects of acute and progressively increasing CO 2 , from normocapnic conditions to 60 mg CO 2 L -1 , on oxygen uptake rates (MO 2 ). This was followed by exposure to three concentrations of CO 2 ; 10, 30, and 60 mg L -1 (equivalent to pCO 2 of 5.4, 16.2, and 32.4 mmHg) against a normocapnic control (pCO 2 0.3 mmHg), to investigate acute (1h) or prolonged (24h) effects on standard (SMR) and maximum metabolic rate s (MMR), haematology, and extra - and intracellular acid-base status in adult Nile tilapia (mean BM 435 ± 16 g ±SE). Acute exposure to hypercapnia led to concentration-dependent decreases in both SMR and MMR. Fish were able to fully or partially recover MMR and metabolic scope (MS) after 24h, while depression of SMR persisted at all CO 2 levels. Acute exposure to CO 2 caused intra-and extracellular pH levels to decrease by up to 0.5 units in a concentration-dependent manner. Only the lowest hypercapnic treatment (pCO 2 5.4 mmHg) was able to fully recover within 24h. Changes in haematological variables appeared minor, being restricted to increasing haematocrit, haemoglobin concentration, and mean cell volume in the highest CO 2 treatments after 24h exposure. Although the Nile tilapia is generally considered a species able to tolerate poor water quality, the modest or slow acid-base regulation following hypercapnic exposure suggests sensitivity to hypercapnia. Experiment 2. Dissolved gases (carbon dioxide and oxygen) in earthen ponds exert strong opposing effects due to photosynthesis and respiration. This leads to daily conditions that fluctuate between being hyperoxic and hypocapnic during the day and becoming severely hypoxic and hypercapnic at night. The interacting effects of hypoxia and hypercapnia and fluctuating conditions on pond-farmed Nile tilapia have not received any attention. This study evaluated the effects of daily variations in dissolved O 2 and CO 2 on the appetite and feed utilization in Nile tilapia using groups reared under normoxic - normocapnic conditions (control, C), diurnal hypoxia (HO), diurnal hypercapnia (HC), or combined diurnal hypoxia and hypercapnia (HO × HC) in a digestibility system. Results show that hypoxia and hypercapnia exerted strong individual effects on appetite, specific growth rate, and feed conversion and that simultaneous hypoxia and hypercapnia amplified these effects. Appetite depression induced by nocturnal hypoxia or hypercapnia was restored at mid-day, but simultaneous exposure resulted in a day-long loss of appetite. Hypoxia and hypercapnia reduced specific growth rates by up to 40% and increased feed conversion ratio by up to 80%, while combined exposure to hypoxia and hypercapnia reduced specific growth rates by >60%. Surprisingly, the digestibility of dry matter, protein, and lipid was improved in groups exposed to single or combined diurnal variation in dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide. This study concludes that nocturnal exposure to hypoxia or hypercapnia has adverse effects on the growth performance of Nile tilapia driven by a combination of reductions in appetite and poor feed utilization. The results emphasize that there is a need for careful management of dissolved gases in pond culture. Application of aeration technology, combined with management of the nutrient status of the pond and sludge accumulation to control oxygen consuming and CO 2 liberating processes, is likely able to greatly improve production performance. Experiment 3. Temperature plays a significant role in controlling oxygen solubility in water and its availability to aquatic breathing species including fish. In fish ponds, the water temperature can increase gradually during the day resulting in elevated temperature and an extended period of low dissolved oxygen. In this study, the response of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) interms of thermal tolerance limit (CTmax), metabolic rate (SMR), Cardiac performance (ƒ H ), and ventilation frequency (ƒv) to the acute increase in temperature upon changing dissolved oxygenv saturation was investigated. Nile tilapia were experimentally exposed to an increased temperature of 0.1 °C min -1 at 100% DO saturation (Normoxia), 70% (hypoxia), and 130% (hyperoxia) from 26 °C (Optimum) until the onset of loss of equilibrium (LOE). Oxygen consumption rate (MO 2 ), heartbeat, and opercula activity were averaged at each temperature increase for three DO saturation levels. Results show that high DO saturation (130%) increased Nile tilapia’s Critical Thermal Maximum (CTmax) by 10%. The Nile tilapia metabolic rate (SMR) varied significantly with the changing DO saturation at acute increased temperature levels (One-way ANOVA; F(2,44) = 4.596, P = 0.016). Temperature-DO-limited metabolic relationship affected cardiorespiratory activities and maximum thermal tolerance (CTmax) in Nile tilapia (one-way ANOVA; F (2,44) = 0.34, P = 0.713). Different levels of DO saturation were found to significantly affect Nile tilapia’s respiration ability (Opercula beats min -1 ) (P < 0.001). This study is concluding that diurnal and seasonal pond water quality varies significantly between zones and between seasons within the investigated zones and affectsthe production performance of the pond-cultured Nile tilapia. Nile tilapia might only be stocked in the warm season in the Northern and southern highland zone if farmers are to achieve the best growth of Nile tilapia. Although the Nile tilapia is generally considered a species able to adapt to and tolerate poor water quality, the modest or slow acid-base regulation following hypercapnic exposure suggests that it is quite sensitive to CO 2 exposure. Although Nile tilapia is considered resilient to environmental stress, feeding and feed utilization, oxygen uptake, and Critical thermal maximum are strongly influenced by daily fluctuations in dissolved CO 2 , O 2 and Temperature.
Feed utilisation, growth performance and carcass characteristics of Tanzania shorthorn zebu cattle fed rice straws under traditional finish feeding system
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2024-05) Kilyenyi, Edson Henry
Tanzania has 36.6 million cattle and is one of the countries with the largest cattle population in Africa. Of the 36.6 million cattle, 96% are indigenous cattle and the majority of them belong to the Tanzania Shorthorn Zebu (TSHZ) breed. The TSHZ are kept under low input systems and grazed extensively in the communal rangelands. The low input management practices result into poor performance that has led to red meat production-demand imbalance in the country. The mismatch between supply and demand of beef is aggravated by the fast human population and economic growth. Some local cattle producers engage in feedlot practices as a means to increase beef production and capture the existing red meat market and hence, increase income generation to support their livelihoods. Most feedlot practitioners feed natural grasses including Cenchrus ciliaris hay to cattle as the basal diet and energy-based concentrates as supplement. However, hay usage is limited by its unavailability and high price, which necessitates farmers to look for alternative least cost basal diets such as cereal crop residues. Rice straw is among the cereal crop residues which are abundantly available and cheap in agro-pastoral communities of Tanzania. Despite the abundant availability of rice straws, these straws have high proportion of indigestible carbohydrate which limits their utilisation as a basal diet for fattening cattle. Treatment with urea can improve the nutritional value of rice straws and, hence, high performance of the fattened cattle. Therefore, the current study was conducted to evaluate the effects of partial or complete substitution of C. ciliaris hay with urea treated or untreated rice straws on feed utilisation, growth performance, carcass and meat characteristics of TSHZ. The current study was conducted at Mtanana village in Kongwa district, located about 82 km from Dodoma capital city in central Tanzania. Fifty (50) bulls with initial mean (± SD) weight of 132.4 ± 26.7 kg and age of 2.5 - 3 years were used in the experiment. The bulls were kept under total confinement and assigned randomly to five dietary treatments with 10 animals per treatment. The dietary treatments were used as basal diets and included C. ciliaris hay only (CCH), untreated rice straws (URS), urea treated rice straws (TRS), combination of untreated rice straws and hay (URH) and combination of urea treated rice straws and hay (TRH). In addition to the basal diet, all animals were fed the same supplementary diet comprised of maize bran (53%), molasses (25%), sunflower seed cake (20%), mineral premix (1.5%) and table salt (0.5%). The feeding trial took 84 days and at the end of the experiment, the experimental animals were evaluated for feed intake, weight gain, daily weight gain, percentage profit return, carcass characteristics and meat quality. Throughout the experimental period, clean water was provided ad libitum to all experimental animals. The results indicate differences (p < 0.001) in basal diet intake whereby animals under TRS had the highest value (1.6 ± 0.02 kg DM/day) and those on CCH had the lowest (1.3 ± 0.2 kg DM/day). Similarly, metabolisable energy intake was highest for animals fed TRS (86.0 ± 0.7 MJ/day) and lowest for those on CCH (72.0 ± 0.7 MJ/day). The animals fed TRH had the highest weight gain (64.7 ± 4.4 kg) and average daily gain (770 ± 0.1 g/day) while those on URS had the lowest weight gain (50.3 ± 4.4 kg) and average daily gain (599 ± 0.1 g/day). Also, feed conversion ratio varied (p < 0.001) among treatments and was lowest for animals on TRH (8.9 ± 0.1) and highest for animals on URS (11.9 ± 0.1), indicating that animals on TRH were more effective in converting feed to live weight. Animals fed URH had the highest hot carcass weight and some linear carcass measurements such as chest depth and hind limb circumference. The final meat pH was slightly higher in all animals subjected to different dietary treatments and was above the recommended value of 5.8. This resulted into dark red meat, probably due to the stress experienced by the animals at slaughter. Meat fat content was lower in animals fed TRS (10.6%) than in animals fed TRH (13.9%) and URS (11.9%). The animals on TRS had the highest proportion of lean (72.3%) compared to the animals on other treatments. The animals on TRH showed the least cost (TZS 5,244/=) for gaining one kilogram of live weight. However, thehighest percentage profit return was observed in animals fed TRS (32.3%) while those fed CCH had the least (27.3%). Therefore, it is concluded that TRS is the best basal diet for fattening indigenous cattle because the animals fed this diet showed higher percentage profit margin, proportion of lean and lower fat and total lipid contents compared to those on other diets.
Studies on growth rate, carcass quality and helminth resistance of three strains of Tanzania local Goats
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2002) Malole,Julius Luhende
This study was conducted on three strains (Kigoma, Dodoma and Mtwara) of Tanzanian local goats with the aim of estimating heritability for pre weaning (birth-4 months), post weaning (4-8 months) and yearling (8-12 months) growth rates. Other heritability parameters estimated were for weight at birth, 4, 8, and 12 months of age and helminth resistance traits i.e. Faecal egg count (FEC) and packed cell volume (PCV). Data accumulated between 1997 and 2000 was used to estimate heritability. The same data set was used to evaluate the effect of sex, birth type, strain, year of birth on growth rate at four, eight and twelve months of age. This formed part I of the study. In part II of the study, the effect of worm burden on growth rate was done only on goats that had available information on PCV and FEC at six and twelve months of age. This study also evaluated the effect of strain on killing out characteristics, carcass quality and composition as well as development of prediction equations/models for carcass weight and carcass tissues. Most of the traits considered were observed to have (0.32-0.39) moderate heritability, with exception of weight at weaning, 8 months, one year of age and PCV, which had high (0.4-0.44) heritability. Strain had a significant influence (P<0.05) on growth rate at four, eight and twelve months of age. The Dodoma strain had highest daily gain at four months (40.0g), eight months (37.6g) and twelve months (32.6g) of age compared to that of Kigoma (34.6g, 35.2g, 31.4g) and Mtwara (32.3g, 29.4g, 26.1g), respectively. Sex had a significant influence on growth rate only at four months of age. Male kids had higher daily gain than females. There was a significant effect of worm burden on growth rate at six and twelve months of age. Dodoma strain showed lowest FEC and highest PCV and growth rate. Mtwara strain showed highest level of FEC and the lowestiii PCV and growth rate. Kigoma strain was in between the other two strains. Susceptibility to helminth infection measured by FEC and PCV indicated that Dodoma strain did not differ significantly (P>0.05) from that of Kigoma strain, and that both of them were more resistant than Mtwara strain. Further more, results indicated a negative correlation between FEC and PCV at both ages. FEC also had a negative relationship with growth rate at six and twelve months of age, whereas PCV showed a positive relationship with growth rate. There were significant differences between strains in dressing percentage (DP), slaughter weight, empty body weight and carcass weight. Dodoma strain had the highest weights followed by Mtwara and Kigoma. Dressing percentage was 49.3% in Dodoma strain, 45.5% in Mtwara strain and 44.8% in Kigoma strain. Strain effects were also observed for edible non-carcass components when expressed as percentage of slaughter weight. Dodoma strain had the highest weight of kidney, head, feet, and gut fat compared to Mtwara and Kigoma. Other edible non-carcass components such as pluck, spleen, liver, and gut were heavier for Dodoma strain than those of others trains albeit the differences were not significant. Carcass composition consisted of 70.3, 69.8, and 68.4% for lean; 17.8, 18.8 and 19.7% for bone; 12.5, 15.5, and 15.5% for fat in Dodoma, Mtwara and Kigoma strains, respectively. Strain effect was also evident in carcass tissue ratios, with Dodoma goats showing better proportions than Mtwara and Kigoma. Strain also had significant effect (P<0.05) on carcass joint weights. The Dodoma strain exhibited heaviest weights of ribs, breasts, loin and feet than the other two strains. Heart girth was the best independent variable in predicting carcass weight (P<0.002, R2 = 82.4%). Foreleg joint was the best predictor of lean (P<0.001, R2 = 92%), while rib joint was the best predictor of both carcass bone (P<0.001, R2= 87%) and fat (P<0.001, R2= 80%). Of theiv the three independent variables namely slaughter weight, carcass weight and empty body weight, carcass weight was the best predictor of lean (P<0.001, R2= 98%) and fat (P<0.001, R2 =87%), whereas slaughter weight was the best predictor of bone (P<0.001, R2 = 89%). It was generally concluded that of the threes trains, the Dodoma strain was superior to the rest in terms of growth rate, helminth resistance and carcass quality. Selection, bio-molecular techniques and cross breeding could be employed to improve these traits because they have moderate heritability.
The potential of leucaena pallida and acacia angustissima fodder in improving the productivity of dairy cattle in Tabora region
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2005) Msangi, Rashid Badi Ramadhani
Four experiments were carried out to evaluate the feeding value of L. pallida and A. angustissima and determine how these fodder materials could be managed and used for sustained dairy production in the farming system in Tabora Region, Western Tanzania. The first experiment involved assessing the yield and nutritive value of£. pallida and A. angustissima as related to cutting management. In experiment 2, the effect of post-harvesting treatment methods on the level of secondary compounds were evaluated. Experiment 3 was carried out to investigate the effect of supplementing L. pallida and A. angustissima leaf meals to lactating dairy cows fed grass hay on milk yield, quality and financial return of the rations. Experiment 4 was undertaken to determine digestibility and nitrogen balance in dairy cows fed grass hay supplemented with dried leaf meals from L. pallida and A. angustissima. Results showed that the 3-months cutting interval had the highest fodder yield (3.44 and 5.41 tDM/ha for L. pallida and A. angustissima, respectively) while 1-month cutting regime had the lowest fodder yield (2.8 and 3.4 tDM/ha for L. pallida and A. angustissima, respectively). Nitrogen and mineral contents varied significantly (P < 0.05) between cuttings and edible fractions, which ranged from 27.1 to 47.7 for nitrogen, 2.37 to 8.49 for calcium, 1.40 to 4.90 for phosphorus and 11.6 to 23.1g/kg DM for potassium. Condensed tannins (CT) in the edible fractions ranged from 8 to 16 and 17 to 33mg/g DM for A. angustissima (AA) and L. pallida (LP), respectively. Mimosine content ranged from 26.8 to 63mg/g DM in edible fractions of L. pallida. In both species, In-sacco DM and N degradability at 48 hours of incubation were significantly (P < 0.05) higher in 1-month cuttings than in the other cuttings and ranged from 442 to 591g/kg for DM and 503 to 618g/kg DM for nitrogen. Soaking in water, sun drying, wilting and drying under shade of the edible fractions reduced 37 to 50%, 22 to 40%, 12 to 18% and less than 10% of CT content, while mimosine content was reduced by 74 to 91%, 41 to 55%, 20 to 40% and 22 to 26%, respectively. Milk yield was highest for cows supplemented with cotton seed cake (CSC) (9.94 kg/day) and lowest for cows supplemented with LP (7.78 kg/day). Supplementing mixture of the two browse leaf meals gave the highest net return (104.20 Tshs/litre) while CSC recorded the lowest net returns (66.60 Tshs/litre). Apparent DM and N digestibility were higher for cows supplemented with CSC (585g/kg and 931g/kg for DM and N, respectively) and lowest for cow supplemented with LP (466g/kg and 603g/kg DM for DM and N, respectively). The N absorbed was more efficiently retained (P < 0.05) with cows supplemented with CSC (21.8 g/day) and poorly retained with cows supplemented with AA (4.24 g/day). These results indicated that optimal yield and quality of edible fodder materials of the two browse species could be obtained at 2-months cutting interval. Soaking in water and/or drying in the sun could reduce tannins and mimosine content in the edible fractions to an acceptable level before feeding. The two browse species had high CP and mineral contents and were more economical than cotton seed cake as protein supplement. Agronomic strategies to maximize fodder production during the dry season should be given attention. Studies to determine the effect of tannins and other related polyphenolic compounds on protein availability and utilization by ruminant animals should be carried out.
Quality beef supply chain efficiency and consumption in Arusha and Dar es Salaam cities, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2015) Kamugisha, Proscovia Paschal
This study investigated efficiency along quality beef supply chain and consumption of quality beef in Arusha and Dar-es-Salaam cities, Tanzania. Specifically the study investigated: (i) efficiency of supplying quality beef (QB) (ii) consumption pattern for QB (iii) consumers' preferences for QB and (iv) consumers’ willingness to pay (WTP) for QB. Added cost/kilogram and returns/shilling were used to indicate efficiency of QB supply. Almost Ideal Demand Systems was used to analyze consumption pattern of QB while Principal Component Analysis and Contingent Valuation Method were used to determine beef consumers’ preferences and WTP for QB respectively. Data were collected using questionnaires administered to two cattle fattening companies, three auction markets, 10 wholesale meat traders, 106 butchermen. six beef processors, 11 supermarkets, 34 tourist hotels, one beef importer and 278 households. Results showed that the cost of processing QB was almost 9 and 1.5 times the cost of producing and retailing QB, respectively. Electricity accounted for 84% and 73% of added cost for processing and distribution of QB respectively. Returns/shilling was highest (83%) and lowest (12%) at retailing and production nodes respectively. Only 9.5% of sampled households consumed QB amounted to 32.1kg/person/year priced at 14 250Tsh/kg. The average consumption of QB in tourist hotels amounted to 449kg/month/hotel priced at 25 608Tsh/kg. ‘Freshness’ and ‘less fat content’ were mainly preferred by household consumers; while cleanliness, safety and tenderness were mostly proffered by tourist hotels. Expensiveness, unfreshness and the misconception that QB was preserved using chemicals were major reasons limiting WTP for QB. To promote production and consumption of QB this study recommends that: (i) Investors should venture in local QB supply because it is profitable. However, efforts should be made to use low cost alternative energy sources such as biogas and solar power to make the venture more profitable (ii) Tanzania Meat Board and other stakeholders in the beef industry should promote marketing of QB through introduction of meat consumption week,advertising, training in schools and participation in trade fairs and (iii) Linkages of major importers of QB with local QB producers should be made with proper taxation of imported beef to make locally produced QB more competitive.
Factors limiting the adoption of animal draught technology package in Nkasi district, Rukwa region, Tanzania
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2010) Mushiha, Lameck Mpumbiye
History shows that Nkasi District farmers had been using oxen to plough for over 50 years but they have never replaced human power in other farm operations of planting, weeding, ridging and transportation. In the study area 70% of ploughed land is done by ox-drawn ploughs enabling farmers to expand area under cultivation. The adoption of the oxen for ploughing only considerably underutilizes the animals' potential and resources leading to merely shifting the labour bottleneck from tillage to weeding. The main objective of the study was to identify factors leading to low adoption of animal draught technology in planting and weeding activities, when ploughing has been highly adopted by the same farmers. The study involved two wards in Nkasi District and two villages from each ward were randomly selected. Data collected were verified, coded and analysed using the SPSS computer programme. It has been identified that extension sendees given on ADT were inadequate to influence adoption. Extension agents made few ineffective follow ups to farmers who had undergone ADT training. However it was found that groups used as contact farmers had old and related members that resulted in difficulties in groups management. It was further found that women whose principal duties in crop production are planting and weeding are denied the use of oxen by their husbands. The training approach applied in all ADT development projects was passive in which farmers provided land and accepted to use the given implements. Low availability of ox-drawn implements for planting, weeding and ridging as well as their high prices was a major problem that requires a national attention if the nation needs to alleviate rural poverty.
Development of weaner meal for dairy calves using fish wastes from Nile perch (lates niloticus) and cassava (manihot Esculenta) root meal
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2002) Katakweba, Abdul Ahmed Selemani
Growth, blood parameters and in sacco degradability studies were 11m concurrently to evaluate the effects of cassava root meal (CRM) and fish waste (FW) as energy and protein substitutes for respectively hominy meal (HM) and cotton seed cake (CSC) in formulation of weaner meals for dairy calves. The FW were derived from processing of Nile perch (Leites niloticus) while CRM (Manihot esculenta) was purchased in fresh form and dried for compounding. In experiment I the effects of CRM and FW as substitutes for HM and CSC were evaluated in growth, blood parameters and intake trials lasting for 56 days using 20 Ayrshire weanner heifers ranging in weight from 88-194 kg. The heifers were allotted at random in four treatments rations (TR| - TR4) of 5 animals each. The four treatments were: TRi 66.5 % HM and 31.5 % CSC; TR2 = 50 % CRM and 48 % CSC; TR3 67.5 % HM and 30.5% FW and TR4 = 51.5 % CRM and 46.5 % FW. Data was collected on daily DM1 and weight changes were recorded fortnightly. In Experiment II in sacco degradability studies were made to assess the degradability characteristics of the individual feed ingredients as well as the compounded rations used in Experiment I. Four fistulated cows with an average weight of 314.25 kg were used. Rumen pH and NH3-N were also measured. No (P > 0.05) differences in weight gain were observed between heifers on TRi and TR3. Heifers on TR 2 gained (P < 0.05) faster than those on TRi, TR3 and TR4 (620 vs 490, 460 and 420 g respectively). TR2 had (P < 0.05) superior feed efficiency (0.129) followed in a descending order by TR15 TR3 and TR4 (0.116, 0.113 and 0.106 kg gain /kg feed respectively). Feed costs per kg gained for TRi — TR4 were $ 0.338, 0.418, 0.332 and 0.496 respectively. Blood parameters were (P < 0.05) influenced by protein and energy sources as well as their interactions. Fishiii wastes supplementation to heifers increased (P<0.05) blood plasma minerals compared to CSC for TRj. TR4 Heifers on CRM and CSC combination had (P < 0.05) higher levels of total plasma protein and plasma glucose (97.07g/l and 3.3 mmol/1) compared to those of CRM and FW (94.86 g/1 and 3.0 mmol/l) respectively. DM degradability at 48h for CRM was (P < 0.05) higher than HM (920 vs 835 g/kg) while CP for HM was (P 0.05) higher than that of CRM (946 vs 837 g/kg) respectively. Both DM and CP for CSC were (P < 0.05) higher than that of FW (739 and 887 vs 367 and 598 g/kg). Hay had DM and CP of 322 and 749 g/kg respectively. The degradability of DM and CP at 48h in TRi and TR2 were (P 0.05) higher than in TR3 and TR4 (80land 799 vs 727 and 616 g/kg DM and CP of 828 and 825 vs 667 and 605 g/kg) TR2 having apparently higher rates of DM and CP degradability. The pH and NH3-N ruminal values were (P < 0.05) different between treatment rations and treatments with FW component had (P 0.05) higher NH3-N than that of CSC (284.7 and 203.7 vs 135.8,and 183.9 mg/1). It was concluded that CRM and FW could be used cost effectively in weaners rations, but best results are obtainable where CRM is combined with CSC.
Growth, extracted milk yield and reproductive performance of Teso cattle and their crosses with Sahiwal and Boran at Serere, Uganda
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2005) Mulindwa, Henry Earon
A study was earned out to evaluate growth, extracted milk yield and reproductive performance of Teso cattle and their crosses with Sahiwal and Boran at Serere Agricultural and Animal Research Institute, Serere, Uganda. Analysis of variance based on GLM of SAS 2002 was used to analyse the data. The overall means for weights at birth, weaning and pre-weaning ADG were 18.36 ± 0.076, 100.55 ± 0.48 kg and 304 ± 1.96 g/day respectively. Dry season bom calves were significantly (P<0.05) superior to wet season bom in both weaning and pre-weaning ADG. Sex of the calf was significant only for weaning weight whereby males were heavier than the females by 3.35 kg. Genetic group of the calf was significant (P<0.001) for all traits studied. Rankings of genetic groups for weaning weight and pre-weaning ADG were BiSx(SxT), F] (SxT), Bi(SxT)xT, B]Bx(BxT), F](BxT) and Teso. Influence of year was significant (P<0.01) for weaning weight and pre-weaning ADG. Heritability estimates based on sire variance components for birth, weaning weight and pre-weaning ADG were 0.41, 0.02 and 0.02 and those based on dam plus sire variance components were 0.41, 0.16 and 0.36 respectively. The phenotypic correlation between birth and weaning weight was -0.07, birth weight and pre weaning ADG was -0.44 while that between weaning weight and pre-weaning ADG was 0.93. The overall calving interval was 453 days. Fj(BxT) and Fi(SxT) crosses had calving intervals of 44.6 and 61.3 days longer than the pure Teso cows. The overall means for extracted milk yield and lactation length were 120 + 3.4 kg and 173.6 ± 5 days respectively. Mean lactation length for Fi(SxT), Fi(BxT) and Teso were 182.9, 165.7 and 148.7 days respectively. Fi(SxT) had significantly (P<0.05) higher extracted milk yield (178 kg) than Teso (127.2 kg) and Fl(BxT) crosses (125.9 kg). Dry season calvers had 38.5 kg more extracted lactation milk yield than wet season calvers. Extracted milk yield of the third month after calving had high correlations 0.80 and 0.93 with 100 days milk yield and extracted lactation milk yield respectively. Lactation curve parameters for partially milked cows belonging to the three genetic groups studied were also estimated. Selection of animals for improved milk production can be done using the milk yields of the first three months of lactation.
Effect of concentrate supplementation on fattening performance and quality of carcass and meat of crossbred and small East african goats
(Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2011) Hozza, William Abdi
Forty eight castrated goats (24 Small East African x Norwegian crossbreds and 24 Small East African), IS months old with average body weight of 16.7 kg were used to evaluate effect of genotype and concentrate supplementation levels on fattening, quality of carcass and meat and ultimately economics of fattening. Goats were randomly allocated into three diets varying in concentrate levels in a 2 x 3 factorial arrangement fed for 84 days. The concentrate levels were; no access to concentrate (TO), 66 % access to ad libitum concentrate allowance (Tl) and 100 % access to ad libitum concentrate allowance (T2). In addition to the supplement goats were grazed, fed hay and drinking water. Diet had significant (P<0.01) effects on total DM intake. T2 goats had 145 and 110 g higher (P<0.05) total DM intake than TO and Tl goats respectively. TO goats were 3.3 kg and 2.6 kg lower (P<0.05) in final BWT than those in T2 and Tl respectively. Supplemented goats had significantly (P<0.05) higher daily gain, body condition score, better feed conversion efficiency, dressing percentage and EUROP scores for conformation than TO goats. Diet had a significant effect (P<0.00I) on all killing out parameters. Increasing level of concentrate increased (P<0.05) fatness and DM of the meat and decreased (P<0.05) water in meat, without affecting that of ash, protein and chemical fat. Although thawing loss for LD muscle increased (P<0.05) with ageing, cooking loss and WBSF improved (P<0.05) with ageing. The lowest WBSF values were recorded for M. Psoas major and Infraspinatus. Among supplemented goats the cost of 1 kg gain under Tl was Tsh 213 cheaper than T2. It was concluded that goats should be grazed and supplemented with 400 g of concentrate for satisfactory fattening performance, meat quality and higher economic return of the enterprise.

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